Relationship Between Humans And Colour In Architectural Spaces

Colour can clarify and define space, form and structure, yet in many architectural practices is often considered only at the final stages of the design process. This tendency to subordinate colour reflects an attitude held by many design professionals since the Renaissance.

The premise that colour is secondary to form, the ‘disegno colore’ theory, was established by Aristotle in his ‘Poetics’ during the Renaissance. Further reinforcing this belief, the architect Le Corbusier influenced the role of colour in architectural design still upheld by many today. He considered whiteness to convey order, purity, truth and architecture. His views were further supported by contemporaries such as Adolf Loos who considered white to be the colour of heaven, while Theo van Doesburg believed it the spiritual colour of the period (Minah 2008). White became the epitome of modern architecture. While Le Corbusier latterly modified his attitude toward the relationship of colour in architecture, the colour rules established in his work ‘Purism’, co-written with Amédéé Ozenfant, were never as influential as his earlier beliefs (Batchelor 2000).

The following paper examines the importance of colour within architectural space and its ability to influence mental well-being through its sensory and physiological properties.

Experiencing Colour

What is fundamental in understanding the use of colour and light in interior space? Why do some spaces bring joy, while other do not? Many would judge it simply a matter of taste, while others an expression of artistic skill, use of precise colour theory or scientific research. It is a complex combination of many factors, both human and scientific.

Colour is perceived by the eye through different wavelengths of light carried to us by our surroundings and interpreted by the brain (Nassau 1998). Without light there would be no colour. Light reflects off surfaces, triggering an electromagnetic response in the eye, which in turn translates into colour within the brain (Miller 1997). Our perception of colour is dictated by its hue (actual colour), its intensity or depth of tone (saturation) and its brightness, creating shade and shadow (Miller 1997).

An academic interest in the psychological meaning of colour has been prevalent for centuries. Philosophers from ancient Greece dating back to Aristotle’s time, artists post da Vinci, the early 19th century poet Goethe and subsequent latter day psychologists, anthropologists, biologists, etc, have theorised and investigated the complexity of human response to, and use of colour (Birren 1978; Sharpe 1980).

Shown in Table 1. are the six categories believed by Graham, to be key to the human responses to colour within the built environment (Pierman 1978).

The scope of the subject is so huge that for the purpose of this paper my main focus will be physiological, mood and associative response to colour and its implications on our experience of interior space.

Biological Reactions of a Colour Stimulus

There is a reoccurring theme in published literature on human response to colour, namely, the association of hues at the long or warm end of the visible spectrum (red, orange and pink) with arousal and excitation, and those at the short or cool end (green, blue violet) with calmness and relaxation (Goldstein 1942; Gerard 1958; Wilson 1966; Jacobs and Hustmyer 1974) which crosses

multi-cultural boundaries (Oyama, Tanaka et al. 1962; Adams and Osgood 1973). Although not all results have shown identical outcomes in respect of systolic blood pressure, skin conductance, respiration, heart rate, eye-blink frequency and electrical brain activity, the emotional responses have been similar.

Further studies have used word associations with colour, such as blue being associated with “tender, soothing, secure and comfortable” and orange with “disturbing, distressed, upset” (Wexner 1954). A more recent study attempted to replicate the findings of Gerrard, with a focus on the effect on cardiovascular function (Yglesias, Stewart et al. 1993). Whilst the effect on the heart could not be replicated the individual’s mental expectations of the consequence of the colours was in accord with previous literature. Jacobs and Seuss similarly found the effects of 4 primary colours projected onto a large screen produced high anxiety levels for red and yellow, consistent with earlier studies (Jacobs and Hustmyer 1974)

Schauss claimed that pink colours acted as a natural tranquilizer and had successfully subdued prison inmates (Schauss 1979), but this has not been substantiated in further studies (Pellegrini, Schauss et al. 1981). The earlier findings may have been more to do with the Hawthorne effect, particularly as such a result would contradict the prevalent red/blue spectrum theory.

Whilst all of the above research with its consequent design implications was carried out using coloured light, slides, patches, or words, Kűller et al experimented using full scale decorated rooms. Those decorated with colours from the long visible spectrum created greater arousal than those from the short spectrum. Additionally, introverts or those in a negative mood became more affected than others, impacting their performance (Kűller, Mikellides et al. 2009).

Similarly, Kwallek found that an individual’s ability to screen colours for irrelevant stimuli had an impact on the effect of colour. High screeners were more productive in a red working environment, while low screeners performed better in a blue-green office (Kwallek, Soon et al. 2006) (Kwallek, Soon et al. 2007) (Kwallek, Woodson et al. 1997). In addition, Kwallek et al found saturation of colour was a significant predictor of differences in mood between males and females. Ainsworth contrarily found no difference in performance between red and blue offices (Ainsworth, Simpson et al. 1993). However, In a study of almost 1000 workspaces in four countries, interior colour was recognised as an important influencing element of mood and performance (Kűller, Ballal et al. 2006).

A key article by Kaiser reviews the varied literature on non-visual physiological responses by humans to colour, (Kaiser 1984a), concluding that there are reliable physiological responses to colour recorded, but that some of the results may have been effected by cognitive response to colour (Kaiser 1984a). The preceding review shows that, despite considerable interest and research, studies have yet to provide a thorough and empirically proven set of rules for the relationship between colour and emotions (Valdez and Mehrabian 1994).

Cognitive Response to Colour

The way we respond to colour can also be a result of conscious symbolism or associated actions. Yglesias et al showed that we have expectations in respect of our response to certain colours (Yglesias, Stewart et al. 1993), regardless of involuntary physiological responses. These may be learned through culture or tradition, memory, preferences or fashion.

Colour associated with actions can be seen in the red, amber and green of traffic lights conveying stop, yield and go, respectively. When these colours are used in isolation from their connection with traffic, they can still influence their association (Hutchings 2004). Red is commonly used to signify danger, or to command attention and is the most pervasive colour signal in nature (Humphrey 1976). It can, however, have a somewhat ambiguous meaning as it is the colour of edible berries, signifies love, lust, anger and blood; a combination of both positive and negative symbolism.

Culture and tradition can connect specific emotions with certain colours. Typically, white is worn by Western brides for its connection with purity, whereas in India the preferred colour is red (Hutchings 2004) and in other countries black, which is in stark contrast to its commonly accepted association with mourning (Kaya and Crosby 2006). White continues its connection with purity through its use in kitchens and bathrooms, translating into cleanliness and hygiene. It can also be seen in its association with hospitals and specifically the doctors coat, further reinforcing its sterile status (Blumhagen 1979). In China white is associated with righteousness. Black is associated with dullness and stupidity in Indian culture, while red implies ambition and desire (Kreitler and Kreitler 1972).

Colours can also be steeped with religious meaning through association. For instance, green is the sacred colour of Islam (Kaya and Crosby 2006), and was also considered sacred by the Celts up until the Christian church introduced white (Singh 2006). In addition to white, purple is the symbolic colour used in Christian churches throughout Lent for drapes and altar frontals, while orange is considered the most sacred colour in Hindu religion. Red and white is a combination used for ritual decorations in Melanesia and for representing the Sacred Heart of the Catholic Church in Mexico (Singh 2006). Colours with religious connotations and subsequent emotional connection can have a profound effect on an interior if inappropriately used and could cause offence, or negative feelings.

Colour associations also appear to rely on an individual’s previous knowledge and experience, combined with personal emotional connections. Kaya and Crosby found colour schemes were remembered in alliance with known interiors, such as restaurants, schools or their homes and, subsequently deemed appropriate colours for specific building types or rooms. For example, some related the colour blue with feelings of relaxation, calmness, comfort and peace, with an associated link to hotels and residences (Kaya and Crosby 2006). Red, a colour frequently aligned with stimulation and arousal, was often coupled with places of entertainment, such as restaurants (Kaya and Crosby 2006).

Conclusion

A complex collection of factors combine to dictate an individual’s perception of colour within the built environment. Despite decades of research into our physiological response to colour and its implications, scientific results have been contradictory and sometimes inconclusive, albeit with a general consensus on reaction to colours within the short and long visible spectrum. For example, as highlighted earlier, red wavelengths can influence biological rhythms, with green wavelengths being weaker. These results are a direct physiological response. A human does not have to have any knowledge of the colour red for a biological response. However the result may be compounded by an indirect physiological response to the colour based on cognition. For instance, an individual may have a strong mental association of red with blood, violence, fire or hatred. We all have our own personal knowledge of colour, based around culture, tradition and memory, which serve to guide our choice and experience of colour and light. In addition, response to colour can also be influenced by our immediate environment, such as whether we are alone or in a group, or how we are feeling at the time and its effect on our ability to screen colours. A person in a depressed mental state may not respond in the same way as someone in a more positive mood.

Colour is a powerful force which can be used in different way to motivate and stimulate, to control our actions, to create an environment of joy or misery. In making colour choices for interior space, it is crucial to understand the nature and culture of the users, in conjunction with scientific research. It is important to discern whether the chosen colour has a direct physiological impact on a particular biological function, or if the colour effect depends on cognitive learning or emotional associations. Selection should also consider the implications of hue and saturation of colour, which play a strong part in eliciting positive feelings and a sense of well-being when appropriately chosen. Interiors should not be devised purely for reasons of fashion or aesthetics, if the aim is to elicit a positive emotional response from the user; a more considered approach should be undertaken.

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