The Main Types Of Social Enquiry Psychology Essay

Research is the systematic investigation and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.Main types of social enquiry. Social Inquiry provides students with a broad overview of modern social theory and approaches, addressing themes common across disciplines in the social sciences-especially sociology, politics, economics, and anthropology.

Case study

A careful study of some social unit (as a corporation or division within a corporation) that attempts to determine what factors led to its success or failure, report, written report, study or a written document describing the findings of some individual or group; this accords with the recent study.

Cross sectional

Cross-sectional research is a research method often used in developmental psychology, but also utilized in many other areas including social science and education. This type of study utilizes different groups of people who differ in the variable of interest, but share other characteristics such as socioeconomic status, educational background, and ethnicity.

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For example, researchers studying developmental psychology might select groups of people who are remarkably similar in most areas, but differ only in age. By doing this, any differences between groups can presumably be attributed to age differences rather than to other variables.

Longitudinal

Longitudinal research is a type of research method used to discover relationships between variables that are not related to various background variables. This observational research technique involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period of time. Data is first collected at the outset of the study, and may then be gathered repeatedly throughout the length of the study. In some cases, longitudinal studies can last several decades.

1.2 Investigate research objectives in order to contribute to, modify and improve upon theory and practice

Research objectives

Research objectives set the purpose and focus of your research with the fundamental questions that will be addressed. Defining your research objectives means defining what do I need to investigate and how am I going to do it?

Objectives are the single most important aspect of research design and implementation. They include individual, tangible steps that will be taken in your research.

Your individual steps will revolve around a wider question or problem that you’ve defined.

Often, objectives will be based on the findings of other research – taking something someone else has investigated or theorised and focusing on a specific aspect of their findings to either strengthen or challenge them.

Such follow-up research involves more than repeating research that’s already been done. It aims to improve the understanding of a specific topic through asking what else needs to be evidenced before the research is meaningful, or what knowledge could be garnered from a more focused investigation, or scrutiny of the existing findings

Dimensions to be measured

Productivity

Efficiency

Effectiveness

Objectives are converted into hypotheses and tested. If data analysis is positive the hypothesis is accepted and the theory hold good, conversely if the data analysis is opposite to the hypothesis it is rejected and the theory is not valid.

The objectives would contribute to improve our understanding of the problem investigated

Since objectives are identified through academic literature review the measurement of research objectives would lead to either consolidate existing theories or would lead to modification or improvement of existing theories and therefore current practice.

1.3 systematically analyse the main research philosophies of positivism and phenomenology.

Research philosophies

There are two kinds of research philosophies

Positivism

Positivism was a result of rejection of concepts that belonged to metaphysics, for example god. As sociologists found it different to explain things as also to test and prove, they looked for other ideas. They felt a strong need for social sciences to be more objective and verifiable as science subjects. Positivism arose as an alternative to metaphysics in an attempt to describe social phenomenon leaving aside what cannot be known or is beyond the scope of social sciences. Positivists are of the view that we can analyze and draw conclusions only what we observe. What we see and can measure forms the subject matter of positivism. Two of the most influential positivists are Durkheim and Comte.

Interpretivism

Interpretivism arose as scientists felt that human beings were not puppets to react to stimuli in a prescribed manner. They were active and purposeful and can respond to stimuli in different ways depending upon their interpretation. Interpretivists describe human beings as having intent and the power to interpret, they say that human beings have the capability to construct their surroundings rather than being a mere spectators to what is happening around them. These scientists stressed the thinking, intentions and behaviours of human beings more than positivists thereby drawing conclusions that were more realistic and perhaps more valid also. Interpretivists talk about shared consciousness as the brain behind many of the concepts in a society.

Task: 2

2.1 Examine qualitative and quantitative research methodologies.

When conducting a research, it is very important to decide on the methodology depending upon focus of study. There are basically two ways to go about an analysis, qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis. There are many who cannot differentiate between the two concepts and think of them as same which is incorrect. If analysis can be thought of as a continuum, quantitative analysis lies at one extreme and qualitative would obviously lie at the other extreme.

Research is the most important tool to increase our knowledge base about things and people. There are two important methods of doing research namely quantitative and qualitative research methods. Despite some overlapping, there is a clear cut difference between quantitative and qualitative research.

Quantitative research

As the name implies, this type of research pertains to studying social behaviour through techniques that have computational basis. The tools in a quantitative research are mathematical in nature, and measurements form the backbone of any quantitative research.

These measurements provide the basis for observation and recording of data that can be later analyzed quantitatively. Rather than being subjective, quantitative research yields data that is more or less unbiased and can be expressed in numerical terms such as percentages or statistics that is easily understandable for a layman. Researcher utilizes the results to make generalizations about a larger set of population.

Qualitative research

This is a kind of research that employs different ways of gathering information without making use of any scientific measurement tools. For example, the sources of information could be varied like diary accounts, surveys, and questionnaires containing open ended questions, interviews that are not structured and also such observations that are not structured.

The data collected through qualitative research is not expressed in mathematical terms. It is descriptive in nature and its analysis is also harder than finding one’s way through a maze of statistical tools. Case studies and ethnography seem to be perfect for utilizing qualitative research tools.

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

The design of study is not ready beforehand and develops and unfolds gradually in a qualitative research while the design and structure are already present in quantitative research

Data generated in quantitative research is numerically expressed in percentages and numbers while data obtained through qualitative research is in the form of text or picture

Data in quantitative research is efficient but may not be able to capture the true essence of human nature and behaviour while qualitative data in words can capture the human nature in totality

Results of quantitative research are quantifiable while the results of a qualitative research are subjective in nature

2.2 critically evaluate the role of the researcher.

Typically the researcher is expected to:

take responsibility for finding out what is expected

take the initiative in raising problems or difficulties

help the supervisory team to ensure consistency

discuss with the supervisory team how to make guidance more effective, including disability related concerns

agree, organise and attend mutually convenient meetings, contribute to their agenda and circulate work in advance

undertake research training as agreed and where need is identified

undertake recommended reading

produce written work as agreed

comply with reporting procedures and inform supervisors of the progress of your research

tell supervisors about difficulties you encounter in your work

arrange for informal sharing of information and practice

generate your own ideas

set realistic deadlines

ask if he don’t understand

decide when to submit the thesis and ensure that it is submitted on time

Ensure that the findings complies with regulations.

2.3 systematically analyse qualitative approaches covering the following terms: Descriptive, Interpretive, Ethnographic and Naturalistic studies.

Description

According to Emerson, Fretz, and Shaw, 1995, Giorgi, 1992, Wolcott, 1994, There is no pure looking with a naked eye, and there is no immaculate. Researchers seeking to describe an experience or event select what they will describe and, in the process of featuring certain aspects of it, begin to transform that experience or event.

Although no description is free of interpretation, basic or fundamental qualitative description, as opposed to, for example, phenomenological or grounded theory description, entails a kind of interpretation that is low-inference, or likely to result in easier consensus among researchers. Even though one researcher may feature the feelings and a second researcher the events a woman reported in an interview, both researchers will likely agree that. In the case of two researchers describing ostensibly the same scene, one researcher might feature the spatial arrangement in a room, while the second researcher will feature the social interactions. But both researchers ought to agree with each other’s descriptions as accurate renderings of the scene. That is, with low-inference descriptions, researchers will agree more readily on the facts of the case, even if they may not feature the same facts in their descriptions.

Interpretive

According to the Wolcott 1994, interpretive, is the human perceptions, basic qualitative description is not highly interpretive in the sense that a researcher deliberately chooses to describe an event in terms of a conceptual, philosophical, or other highly abstract framework or system. The description in qualitative descriptive studies entails the presentation of the facts of the case in everyday language. In contrast, phenomenological, theoretical, ethnographic, or narrative descriptions re-present events in other terms. Researchers are obliged to put much more of their own interpretive spin on what they see and hear.

There are certain types of phenomenological studies incline the researcher to look for, and interpret data in terms of, “life world existential,” such as Van Manen, 1990, claims that corporeality and temporality Such descriptions require researchers to move farther into or beyond their data as they demand not just reading words and scenes, but rather reading into, between, and over them McMahon 1996, Poirier and Ayres 1997 and Wertz 1983 analyse phenomenological study which is an excellent demonstration of the successive transformations from a participant’s description of an event to a researcher’s phenomenological description of that event.

Although less interpretive than phenomenological or grounded theory description, fundamental qualitative description is more interpretive than quantitative description, which typically entails surveys or other pre-structured means to obtain a common dataset on pre-selected variables, and descriptive statistics to summarize them.

Naturalistic observation

Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social scientists. This technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment. This type of research is often utilized in situations where conducting lab research is unrealistic, cost prohibitive or would unduly affect the subject’s behaviour.

Naturalistic observation differs from structured observation in that it involves looking at behaviour as it occurs in its natural setting with no attempts at intervention on the part of the researcher.

2.4 systematically analyse qualitative approaches including Independent observation, large samples, Development of hypotheses, Statistical analyses.

Observation

Qualitative observational research describes and classifies various cultural, racial and sociological groups by employing interpretive and naturalistic approaches. It is both observational and narrative in nature and relies less on the experimental elements normally associated with scientific research of reliability, validity and generalizability. Connelly and Clendenin (1990) suggest that qualitative inquiry relies more on appetency, verisimilitude and transferability. On the other hand, Lincoln and Guba (1985) emphasize the importance of credibility, transferability, dependability and conformability in qualitative studies.

Large samples

Any of the purposeful sampling techniques can be used in qualitative descriptive studies. Especially useful, though, is maximum variation sampling, which allows researchers to explore the common and QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION unique manifestations of a target phenomenon across a broad range of phenomenally and demographically varied cases (Sandelowski,1995).

Researchers like Trost, 1986 also choose to sample cases to represent a combination of pre-selected variables , or typical or unusual cases of a phenomenon, in order to describe it as it tends to appear or uncommonly appears. As in any qualitative study, the ultimate goal of purposeful sampling is to obtain cases deemed information-rich for the purposes of study. The obligation of researchers is to defend their sampling strategies as reasonable for their purposes.

Task:3

3.1 examine the basic principle of research design with respect to objectives, plan, action, review, report.

All research is different but the following factors are common to all good pieces of research.

If the research aims to identify the scale of a problem or need, a more quantitative, randomised, statistical sample survey may be more appropriate. Good research can often use a combination of methodologies, which complement one another.

The research should be carried out in an unbiased fashion. As far as possible the researcher should not influence the results of the research in any way. If this is likely, it needs to be addressed explicitly and systematically.

From the beginning, the research should have appropriate and sufficient resources in terms of people, time, transport, money etc. allocated to it.

The people conducting the research should be trained in research and research methods and this training should provide:

Knowledge around appropriate information gathering techniques,

An understanding of research issues,

An understanding of the research area,

An understanding of the issues around dealing with vulnerable social care clients and housing clients, especially regarding risk, privacy and sensitivity and the possible need for support.

Those involved in designing, conducting, analysing and supervising the research should have a full understanding of the subject area.

In some instances, it helps if the researcher has experience of working in the area. However, this can also be a negative factor, as sometimes research benefits from the fresh eyes and ears of an outsider, which may lead to less bias.

If applicable, the information generated from the research will inform the policy-making process.

All research should be ethical and not harmful in any way to the participants.

Background

Why is this research important?

What other studies have there been in this area?

How will this research add to knowledge in this area?

Objectives

What do you want to find out?

What is the main question you wish to answer?

What are the specific questions you will ask to address the main question?

Are you going to do this research on your own or with others?

Plan

Who are you targeting in this research?

How many people or case files do you intend to interview or read through?

Where will the research take place?

Will participants be clearly and fully informed of the purpose of the research study?

How will you do this?

How will participants be clear about the expectations of the researcher?

Do you have an information sheet and a consent form for participants?

Action

It enables you to examine your own situation.

It is a participatory process and allows for input from all those involved.

It is collaborative. You work with colleagues and other participants to answer your research question.

It allows for an ongoing process of self‐evaluation where you appraise yourself and your own performance.

It assumes that you already have a great deal of professional knowledge and can continue to develop this knowledge and improve your practice.

Review

A review of the literature is an essential part of your academic research. The review is a careful examination of a body of literature pointing toward the answer to your research question.

Literature reviewed typically includes scholarly journals, scholarly books, authoritative databases and primary sources. Sometimes it includes newspapers and magazines.

Primary sources are the origin of information under study, fundamental documents relating to a particular subject or idea. Often they are firsthand accounts written by a witness or researcher at the time of an event or discovery.

Secondary sources are documents or recordings that relate to or discuss information originally presented elsewhere. These, too, may be accessible as physical objects or electronically in databases or on the Internet.

Report

Draft the report from your detailed plan.

Do not worry too much about the final form and language, but rather on presenting the ideas

Coherently and logically.

Redraft and edit. Check that sections contain the required information and use suitable headings,

Check ideas flow in a logical order and remove any unnecessary information.

Write in an academic style and tone.

Use a formal objective style.

Generally avoid personal pronouns; however, some reports based on your own field

3.2 critically evaluate the success of both qualitative and quantitative research projects using relative literature.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research options have been predetermined and a large number of respondents are involved. By definition, measurement must be objective, quantitative and statistically valid.

Simply put, it’s about numbers, objective hard data. The sample size for a survey is calculated by statisticians using formulas to determine how large a sample size will be needed from a given population in order to achieve findings with an acceptable degree of accuracy. Generally, researchers seek sample sizes which yield findings with at least a 95% confidence interval (which means that if you repeat the survey 100 times, 95 times out of a hundred, you would get the same response), plus/minus a margin error of 5 percentage points. Many surveys are designed to produce a smaller margin of error.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research is collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Whereas, quantitative research refers to counts and measures of things, qualitative research refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of things.

Qualitative research is much more subjective than quantitative research and uses very different methods of collecting information, mainly individual, in-depth interviews and focus groups. The nature of this type of research is exploratory and open-ended. Small numbers of people are interviewed in-depth and/or a relatively small number of focus groups are conducted.

Participants are asked to respond to general questions and the interviewer or group moderator probes and explores their responses to identify and define people’s perceptions, opinions and feelings about the topic or idea being discussed and to determine the degree of agreement that exists in the group. The quality of the finding from qualitative research is directly dependent upon the skills, experience and sensitive of the interviewer or group moderator.

This type of research is often less costly than surveys and is extremely effective in acquiring information about people’s communications needs and their responses to and views about specific communications.

Basically, quantitative research is objective; qualitative is subjective.

Quantitative research seeks explanatory laws; qualitative research aims at in-depth description. Qualitative research measures what it assumes to be a static reality in hopes of developing universal laws. Qualitative research is an exploration of what is assumed to be a dynamic reality. It does not claim that what is discovered in the process is universal, and thus, replicable. Common differences usually cited between these types of research include.

Task:4

4.1 define a research problem or issue by analysing current literature and management practice.

Research problem

It is one of the first statements made in any research paper and, as well as defining the research area, should include a quick synopsis of how the hypothesis was arrived at.

This will lead to the proposal of a viable hypothesis. As an aside, when scientists are putting forward proposals for research funds, the quality of their research problem often makes the difference between success and failure.

Defining a Research Problem

Lack of force that drives the people to behave the way they do and they behave even in hardship.

Qualitative research designs use inductive reasoning to propose a research problem.Reasoning Cycle – Scientific Research

This is called the conceptual definition, and is an overall view of the problem.

Lack of motivation is like measuring abstract concepts, such as intelligence, emotions, and subjective responses, and then a system of measuring numerically needs to be established, allowing statistical analysis and replication.

For example, motivation may be measured with a questionnaire from

strongly disagree

disagree

don’t know

agree

strongly agree

4.2 Examine the background and content of the research

Early explanations of motivation focused on instincts. Psychologists writing in the late 19th and early twentieth century suggested that human beings were basically programmed to behave in certain ways, depending upon the behavioural cues to which they were exposed. Sigmund Freud, for example, argued that the most powerful determinants of individual behaviour were those of which the individual was not consciously aware.

According to Motivation and Leadership at Work (Steers, Porter, and Bigley, 1996), in the early twentieth century researchers began to examine other possible explanations for differences in individual motivation. Some researchers focused on internal drives as an explanation for motivated behaviour. Others studied the effect of learning and how individuals base current behaviour on the consequences of past behaviour. Still others examined the influence of individuals’ cognitive processes, such as the beliefs they have about future events. Over time, these major theoretical streams of research in motivation were classified into two major schools: the content theories of motivation and the process theories of motivation.

4.3 Develop research questions to elicit facts, information, gaps in knowledge, and dichotomies in management processes and practices.

Research questions and hypotheses narrow the purpose statement and become major signposts for readers. Qualitative researchers ask at least one central question and several sub questions. They begin the questions with words such as how or what and use exploratory verbs, such as explore or describe. They pose broad, general questions to allow the participants to explain their ideas. They also focus initially on one central phenomenon of interest. The questions may also mention the participants and the site for the research.

1. Determine if a mixed methods study is needed to study the problem

2. Consider whether a mixed methods study is feasible

3. Write both qualitative and quantitative research questions

4. Review and decide on the types of data collection

5. Assess the relative weight and implementation strategy for each method

6. Present a visual model

7. Determine how the data will be analyzed

8. Assess the criteria for evaluating the study

9. Develop a plan for the study

I encourage mixed methods researchers to construct separate mixed methods questions in their studies. This question might be written to emphasize the procedures or the content of the study, and it might be placed at different points. By writing this question, the researcher conveys the importance of integrating or combining the quantitative and qualitative elements. Several models exist for writing mixed methods questions into studies: writing only quantitative questions or hypotheses and qualitative questions, or writing both quantitative questions or hypotheses and qualitative questions followed by a mixed methods question, or writing only a mixed methods question.

4.4 critically evaluate the project plan from the following perspectives: ethical, social, legal, stakeholders.

Ethical and Legal

When most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for distinguishing between right and wrong, such as the Golden Rule (“Do unto others as you would have them do unto you”). This is the most common way of defining “ethics” for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.

Even conducting our research we have to look into following ethical aspects:

Honesty

Objectivity

Integrity

Carefulness

Openness

Respect for Intellectual Property

Confidentiality

Responsible Publication

Responsible Mentoring

Respect for colleagues

Social Responsibility

Non-Discrimination

Competence

Legality

Animal Care

Human Subjects Protection

Task: 5

Critically evaluate what implications previous research into the topic chosen have for the research proposal.

Implications in research of motivation at work

Following can be expected as implications in research of motivation at work.

Lack of secondary data

Some secondary data is limited and insufficient. Sometimes, external parties don’t like to give their real idea about regarding their motivation.

Draw backs in primary data collection

It is very difficult. Because, all data not already available. Some data related people feels, attitudes or opinion. And next important fact is both of primary data have qualitative and quantitative behaviour. Both of data is dependents on people’s opinion.

Time constraints

Students have very limited time in their academic career and this research should conduct simultaneously with other learning activities. Therefore, It is difficult to handle all learning and research activities under limited time management.

Financial constraints

Due to cost involved mainly with the process of data collection, limited number of sources and the small size of sample area can cause biased findings which may mislead the results.

5.2 systematically analyse literature relevant to the content of the proposal.

Great scholars Gardner & Lambert, 1972 proposed that motivation is influenced by two orientations to language learning. An integrative orientation is typical of someone who identifies with and values the target language and community, and who approaches language study with the intention of entering that community.

Such an individual is thought to have an internal, more enduring motivation for language study. Instrumentally motivated learners, on the other hand, are more likely to see language learning as enabling them to do other useful things, but as having no special significance in itself. Such learners will be motivated if they see language learning as having beneficial career prospects or something that will enable them to use transactional language with speakers of the foreign language.

A second problem he argues is whether the integrative/instrumental conceptualization captures the full spectrum of student motivation. It may be that, for a given population of second language students, there are reasons for language learning that are unrelated to either of the two motivational orientations. I agree with Ely that it is not always easy to tell one from the other. For example, there are students who don’t like to study, but they have to, because they have pressure from their parents, peers, teachers, and so forth. This is also a type of motivation which can’t belong to either of the two motivational orientations.

5.3 Make conclusions regarding different approaches to and outcomes of research.

Lack of motivation to learn is very striking thing in almost all of the schools in Japan. I believe some of the schools in other countries also face the same problem. One of the things I found through this literature review is that if we, as teachers, can’t motivate students to learn directly, we should look at different ways to try to motivate them indirectly. For example, we should encourage them to be autonomous learner, increase their confidence, and try to get rid of anxiety they have in learning.

That will lead to great motivation eventually, and thus lead to success in learning. One of the strategies we can use is need analysis. We must find out which aspects of L2 learning are personally valuable to students and must design tasks that support those aspects. For example, if students will go abroad, they will need to communicate with people in English, s