The Negative Impacts Of Tourism Tourism Essay

Increased sea-water, sewage waste water, air and litter pollution are the negative impacts of tourism on the environment natural and built Altinay Kashif, 2005. Murray Mas study the environmental impact of tourist activities in Balears, Spain, in an attempt to construct a time sequence for local ecological footprint for example, Kousis (2000) point out that how there is increasing evidence that most forms of tourism are environmentally damaging. Hills and Rinke (1988) describe tourism’s effects on the environment by highlighting how the impacts of tourism on the environment are related to changes in the state and condition of tourism resources such as flora and fauna, space, land and water, physical location, climate. Thus showing that the impacts of tourism on the environment are directly related, for example, increasing numbers of tourists will increased spatial stress and can destroy the natural environment which tourists seek to visit and enjoy. Tourism is not only a powerful economic and social force but also a factor in the physical environment as well. Ecotourism potentially provides a sustainable approach to development (Okech, 2009). As the tourist industry grow, it will bring environmental impact issues like over exploitation of natural resources, traffic congestion and issues created by inappropriate tourist behaviours. Apart from the effects on natural, human and culture heritages, also create a lot of pollution (Wu, 2003).

Air pollution

The air is an essential ingredient for our wellbeing and a healthy life. Unluckily polluted air is common throughout the world (EPHA, 2009) especially in developed countries from 1960s. (Kan, 2009). South of Poland (Krześlak & Korytkowski, 1994), Ukraine (Avdeev & Korchagin, 1994), China (Kan, 2009), and Pakistan (Government of Pakistan, 2009; Khan, 2010) even famous crowded cities and countries are suffering air pollution. The impact of tourism on the environment is also related to air pollution that caused by gasoline combustion that gives off nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide and lead as cars increased. Mathieson and Wall (1982) argue that pollutants from motor cars. Within cities are attributable partially to recreational driving, tour buses and taxis. In rural areas, however, air pollution is minimal as a result of the tourism industry, but in congested, more populated areas, emission harms the vegetation, the soil and the visibility. This issue is confirmed by the findings of several studies (Rothman, 1978; Tyrrell & Spaulding, 1984; Liu & Var, 1986; Keogh, 1990; Long et al., 1990; Prentice, 1993). An array of research and analysis have triggered by air pollution effects such as acidification of lakes and seas, acid rain and climate change, the research has identified transport as one of the most significant causes (Hunter and Shaw, 2006). Particulate haze is a major environmental hazard. Koe et al. (2001) noted that reduced visibility in Malaysia during the 1997 haze episode was because of the long range transport of smoke from Sumatra. Nowadays, reduced visibility has become a continuing phenomenon across areas of Southeast Asia, result of burning in Kalimantan and Sumatra. Haze events have been recorded in 1983, 1990, 1991, 1994, 1997 and 1998 (Radojevic and Hassan, 1999; Muraleedharan et al., 2000). Besides decreasing visibility, other potential problems come with haze are impacts on human health (Vedal 1997) and impacts on atmospheric radioactive transfer, with the potential to significantly affect climate in the region (Seinfeld and Pandis 1998).

Historically, major smoke hazes have been observed in the region, at times impeding shipping, as early as the 1800s (McDonald, 1938). Based on Department of Environment (2004), slight to moderate haze event occurred in the country that affects the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia including Penang state in 2004. The haze event recorded in the month of June, August and September is mainly due to trans boundary pollution from land and forest fires in several provinces in Sumatra. Therefore, the effects of haze on model derived from GLM will be analysed.

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Research also indicates that air pollution has negative effects on human behaviors and emotions (Briere, Downes & Spensley 1983; Reeve 2005; Rotton 1983). According to Teoh & Tan (2008) emotional problems can be due to negative environmental factors such as air pollution and the haze. Emotional problems occur when there are disruptions in the system and affecting our daily lives. Symptoms of emotional problems include having difficulty sleeping, feel more anxious, afraid and depressed and have no energy (Teoh and Tan 2008).

Water pollution

The water we drink is essential ingredients for our wellbeing and a healthy life, but polluted air and water are common throughout the world (European Public HealthAlliance, 2009). Water has an important role in forming an attractive landscape such as the rivers, lakes and sea that not only add to the visual beauty of a region but also offer possibilities of fishing, sailing, swimming and canoeing. The impact of tourism on the environment is also related to water pollution (Hills and Rinke, 1988). The problem is that river, lake and sea users are major polluters, littering broken bottles, tin cans and other debris in the water thus polluted the natural environment. Another scholar also said that marine pollution is the cause by man, indirectly or directly, of substances or energy into the marine environment (including estuaries), resulting in such deleterious effects as: hazards to human health; harm to living resources; impairing the quality for use of sea water; hindrance to marine activities including fishing and reduction of amenities. Almost all human activities in coastal waters can cause damage or changes, major or minor, long term or short term to the environment, if not properly monitored and planned (Varkey, 1999). Water pollution occurs in land lakes, stream and in the marine environment and is primarily the result of wastewater generated by tourism facilities. This pollution can take different forms such as lawn fertilizer, road oil runoff from disturbed soil, septic tank seepage and inadequately treated sewage (Burak et al., 2004). Untreated sewage disposal is polluting the beaches and often lead to eye, ear, skin and gastrointestinal infections of the bathers (Grant and Jickells, 1995).

In the case of Port Dickson beaches, there are eighty two wastewater pipe lines discharge wastewater including sewage from hotels and houses directly into the sea (Kadaruddin 1997). These discharges lead to degradation of the marine water quality causing significant negative impacts on marine ecosystem in general and mangrove plants in particular. Oil spill and water pollution can cause great damage to mangroves which are susceptible to pollution (Saintilan & Williams, 1999). Surveys conducted by the Malaysian Department of Environment found that majority of the coastal waters were polluted by E. coli, suspended solids and oil and grease (DOE 2006). The protection and safeguarding of the water quality are crucial objectives of the European Union and all governmental authorities due to the important implications it has on human health and the environment (Cabelli 1983).

2.2 Tourist Satisfaction

A tourist destination is a combination of services, tourist products and public goods consumed under the same brand name, thus offering the consumer an integrated experience (Buhalis, 2000; Leiper, 1995). Tourist satisfaction was also defined as the quality of visitors’ experience and a psychological outcome derived from interaction with different service facets in a destination (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Crompton & Love, 1995). A crucial element of successful destination marketing is tourist satisfaction that influences the choice of destination and the decision to return (Yoon and Uysal, 2005). According to Baker and Crompton (2000) stated that, the proposed conceptual model of tourist satisfaction includes seven latent constructs, with tourist satisfaction placed as the central construct. It incorporates four antecedent constructs for example quality, value, costs, risks, and image and two outcomes constructs such as complaint behaviour and loyalty. Tourist satisfaction research has adopted both attribute-based and global approaches in conceptualizing and operationalizing the satisfaction construct (Chi & Qu, 2008; Hsu, 2003; Oliver, 1980, 1993). It is important to find out overall satisfaction from satisfaction with individual attributes, because particular tourism attributes have a notable effect on overall tourist satisfaction (Seaton & Benett, 1996).

Images

According to Crompton (1979) image defined as the ideas and impressions that a person has of a destination. In the tourism industry, the image of a destination has become a very important issue. Since, many countries use promotion and global marketing to support their image, and to compare with other destinations (Lin and Huang, 2009). MacKay and Fesenmaier (1997) specified that destination image is the visitor’s total impression which is formed as a result of the evaluation of various destination elements and attributes. The importance of destination image as a crucial factor in the marketing of a place, influencing choice, perceived quality, satisfaction, loyalty and word of mouth, has been stressed by tourism researchers (Baloglu, 2000; Bigne et al., 2001; Chon, 1990; Um and Crompton, 1990; Woodside and Lysonski, 1989).

Images of places are fundamental to the success of tourism, as tourism demand commonly emanates from individual or collective perceptions of tourist destinations (Williams, 1998; Kelly and Nankervis, 2001). Fredericks and Salter (1995) view image as an ingredient of the customer value package that, together with price, product quality, service quality and innovation, determines the extent of loyalty. Similarly, the rating framework of the pan-European Satisfaction Index (EPSI) contains image as a determinant influencing the perceived value, customer satisfaction and customer loyalty (Eskildsen et al., 2004). The importance of the tourism destination’s image is universally acknowledged, since it affects the tourist behavior in many ways (Baloglu, McCleary, 1999; Echtner, Ritchie, 1991; Fakeye, Crompton, 1991; Woodside, Lysonski, 1989).

Destination image defined as the individual’s overall perception or total set of impressions regarding a place (Bigne et al., 2001; Fakeye and Crompton, 1991).Bigne et al. (2001), Awaritefe (2004) also suggest that images can be modified by visits to a destination

Loyalty

Oliver (1997) defines loyalty as guarantee to repeat purchases of a preferred product or service every time. The marketing efforts such as pricing policies have the potential to bring out change.

The more consumers fulfill their expectations during the purchase or service, the higher probability that consumers will repeat purchase (Wong and Sohal, 2003). Generally, customer loyalty refers to repeat purchases or recommendation to other people (Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Repeat purchase behavior reflects the behavioral dimension of customer loyalty (Dick and Basu1994), which show that who are interested in any kind of repeat purchase behavior, irrespective of whether repeat purchases occur because of attitudinal loyalty. This loyalty refers to committed behavior that is manifested by propensity to participate in a particular recreation service (Backman and Crompton, 1991a).

Kaplanidou and Vogt (2007) stated that revealed that the loyal behavior is determined strictly by the attitudinal loyalty or by the intentions to revisit. The appearance of the repeat visitation by the customer should express that there is emotional or functional loyalty aroused. For example Alegre and Cladera (2009) founded that a very important influence of the repeat visitation intention is satisfaction with previous visitations. There are other possibilities too. For example Oppermann (1998), Mitchell and Greatorex (1993), Milman and Pizam (1995), Gitelson and Crompton (1984) and Baloglu (2001) have founded that one reason for repeat visitation is familiarity of the destination.