Training And Development Nature And Significance Management Essay

Training is a planned process through which knowledge; skills, abilities, attitudes and behaviour of trainees are developed, modified, improved, and sharpened for desired job performance, career progression or human development. It can also be defined as,” the planned process to modify attitudes, knowledge, skills, behaviour etc. through learning to acquire effective performance in an activity or range of activities.”

According to McGehee and Thayer, it is ‘the formal procedure which a company utilizes to facilitate learning so that the resultant behaviour contributes to the attainment of the company’s goals and objectives.’

The need for training and development in an organization is determined by the employee’s performance-deficiency, computed as follows:

Training & Development Need = (Standard Performance-Actual Performance)

The following points explain the nature of training:

1. Training is a must in every organization. The alternative to systematic training is training through ‘trial and error’, which is more costly, time-consuming and nerve-raking.

2. Expenditure on training is not an expense but an investment in human resource development. It yields attractive returns in the form of higher productivity and employee satisfaction.

3. Training has become more important these days because of rapid changes in technologies, environment, working ways, and employees’ aspirations from their jobs, and management styles. Further, effective training can result in increased competitiveness of the organization, and greater employee satisfaction and career development.

4. Training matches individual’s abilities with job and organizational requirements. It turns new employees into productive insiders, contributing their best efforts towards higher productivity and profitability, quicker organizational growth and change,

5. In industry training enhances three broad skills:

I) Motor or technical skills: skill in using the operating system (machines,

methods, men) in the desired directions in most efficient and effective manner

ii) Cognitive or decision-making skills: skill in comprehending and responding to surrounding developments,

iii) Interpersonal or human relation skills: skill in interacting with people in groups.

6. Training in an organization serves at least three functions:

Maintenance function: making sure that a new employee knows how to do his new job satisfactorily.

Motivational function: improving the employee’s confidence and willingness to perform his job more efficiently and learn new skills easily. and

Socialization function: helping an employee to get familiarized with his co-workers, supervisors and people in other department in the same organization.

8. Training involves learning and learning follows a learning curve. It takes place in bursts and plateaus. In the beginning trainees take time to pick up, then pick up learning with zeal and then plateau (relax) for sometime, and then sees a sudden spurt and again a plateau and sudden spurt.

1.1.2. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING:

Effective training and learning is based on seven principles:

Individual Differences: Training should be based on the principle of individual differences. It must be borne in mind that individuals differ in ability and speed of to learn, interests and other personal characteristics.

Motivation: if the trainees are motivated i.e. they see it as a means to increase their productive skills, pay packet, promotability etc. they will take greater interest in learning.

Participation: The trainees and their supervisors should be actively involved in the designing, planning and conducting of training Their involvement and participation will increase their interest and enthusiasm for training and learning.

Relevance: That training is more effective which is directly relevant to the job being done or likely to be done by the trainee because he understands its immediate utility.

Transference: Training will be more effective if it is transferred to job performance

immediately

Repetition: Salient aspects of training content should be repeated time and again so that they get etched in the memory of the trainee.

Feedback: To make learning or training effective the trainee must be provided constant feedback on his progress. This keeps up his zeal to learn.

1.1.3. TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT:

Training is different from development. Training aims at developing some job specific skills in a programmed manner through instructional mode and within a specific time frame. Development, on the other hand, is a continuous learning process in which the emphasis is on building self-confidence, a variety of skills, experience, maturity and adaptability to tackle novel challenges through exposure, interaction, experimentation and creativity.

DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

TRAINING DEVELOPMENT __________________________________________________________________

1. Training involves learning of skills for doing Development involves the an overall growth of an

a particular job. It increases a job skill. employee. It shapes attitudes.

2. Training is concerned with imparting specific It is associated with the development of the middle

job skills to operative workers. and top level executives and professionals.

3. Training aims at improving current level Development seeks to develop competence and

performance. skills for future performance.

4 Training is basically instructional-an It is self-development&self-learning, executives

Instructor teaches, guides and helps trainees. himself makes self efforts with some guidance by

The role of instructor is most important. their mentors at senior levels.

5. Training is generally a short duration Development is a never-ending process. An

exercise-3/ 6/ 9 months or one year. Executive continues to learn throughout his life.

6. Training involve learning standard Development involves development of those

practices, methods and movements to be skills which enable the executive to deal with

repeated time and again. unique problems and situations

1.1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF TRAINING:

Training contributes to the goals of both the organization and the individual being trained.

Training benefits an organization in the following ways:

Training reduces learning time. It also cuts the economical, psychological and physical cost of learning by trial and error.

It reduces labour costs by improving labour productivity. Because of training a trained employee is able to work faster, with greater confidence and accuracy.

Training helps in better utilization of machine time, material and overhead costs, and reduces chances of frequent machine breakdown etc.

Training improves the quality of output, reduces scrap and reduces rejections by customers of sub-standard goods.

Training improves job satisfaction because employees are able to perform up to expectations and their enthusiasm for work is raised.

Training helps in developing multiple skills in the employees for multiple jobs. This helps them at the time of re-structuring the organization, or in times of emergency when some employees are absent, or when new technologies are introduced.

It reduces the costs of managing personnel activities as reflected in lower turnover, absenteeism, accidents, grievances, and complaints.

It also reduces the cost of efficient serving of customers by improving the flow of goods or services from the company to the consumer.

Training benefits the employees too:

Training creates a feeling of confidence in the employees. It also gives them feeling of security and safety at work.

2. It helps in the development of several job skills in the workers. These skills then become valuable asset of the employees and improve their employability anywhere in the job market.

3. Training improves opportunities for promotion and increased earnings for the trained

employees.

4. Training also improves the versatility of the employees on the one hand, and their adaptability to new methods & procedures when change is introduced, on the other hand.

1.1.5 TYPES OF TRAINING

I) Orientation or Induction Training-This training is provided to the new appointees joining the organization. It aims at familiarizing the new employee with the job situation i.e. job requirements and organizational rules, procedures, and routines on the one hand and introducing him to his co-workers, boss and others in the organisation. It helps in formation of favourable impression and attitudes, development of a feeling of belongingness, and facilitation of learning and team work on the part of the employees.

ii) Job Training: This training develops job skills in the trainees. training in the knowledge, skills and attitudes for a specific job or for supervisory job.

iii) Versatility Training-This training enables an employee to man different jobs at the same level as per the organizational needs of manpower. It helps in developing multiple skills for various jobs, generally, at the same level or different levels.

iv) Refresher Training-This is a short term re-training to refresh and recharge performance skills,

v) Promotion or Developmental Training-This training prepares the employees with high potential to develop more skills for shouldering higher and higher responsibilities in the organization.

vi) Special Skill & Attitude Training-training for sharpening decision-making or inter-personal skills, leadership skills or developing higher motivation, higher adaptability etc..

1.2. SYSTEMS APPROACH TO TRAINING

Systematic training consists of several sequential steps shown in the following NARCMEE diagram:

Needsƒ Aimsƒ Resourcesƒ Contentsƒ  Methodologyƒ  Execution-Logistics ,conduct and transfer of trainingƒ Evaluation of the effectiveness.

.

1.ASSESSING TRAINING NEEDS ƒ  ƒ  2. ESTABLISHING OBJECTIVES & CRITERION ƒ  3.IDENTIFYING RESOURCES FOR TRAINING ƒ  ƒ  4. DEVELOPING CONTENT & CURRICULUM ƒ  5. SELECTING METHODOLOGY ƒ  ƒ  6. PLANNING LOGISTICSƒ  7. PROVIDING TRAINING ƒ  8.HELPING TRANSFER OF LEARNINGƒ  ƒ  ƒ  9.EVALUATING TRAINING-EFFECTIVENESS

1.2.1. ASSESSING TRAINING NEEDS OR TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT (TNA)

1.2.1.1. Need for Training: There are two types of forces that suggest need for training:

(I) External forces creating new performance requirements:

Technology: rapid change of technology with Increase in automation and computerization,

Job changes: Increased demand for employees with higher technological skills in information processing, communication, financial analysis, use of computers and new software

Changing composition of the work force e.g. greater education, more minorities and females, requiring new understanding of human relations,

Business complexities: making more demand on management time-need to take quick and accurate decisions,

Greater foreign competition necessitating highly qualified and skilled employees and manager

(II) Internal forces highlighting current performance deficiencies or growing performance expectations: These forces include:

poor preparedness of workers for current or future challenges,

poor motivation of workers resulting in poor work culture,

poor support system-supervision, conditions, procedures and practices etc.

These failings get reflected in many symptoms for change like: a) Low productivity, high absenteeism, and high turnover (attrition rates), b) Low employee morale, high grievances and frequent strikes and work stoppages, c) high costs, low quality, high waste and rejection rate, low capacity utilization, high accident rates etc.

1.2.1.2. Methods of TNA: The perceived performance deficiencies can be examined in two ways:

Reactive TNA, examining discrepancy between perceived and expected performance of the employee’s at current jobs.

Pro-active TNA, examining the perception that current job behaviour reflects an inability to meet future standards of expectations. There are two variants of proactive TNA:

I) Preventive TNA, which is designed to assure that employees will be able

to meet future expectations of their current jobs, and

ii) Developmental TNA, which is conducted for preparing a job-incumbent

having potential for promotion but no willingness for it.

1.2.1.3. Procedure for conducting TNA:

Training need assessment generally consists of four steps:

Organizational Analysis,

Job or Task Analysis,

Person Analysis, and

Environmental Analysis.

i) Organizational analysis and prioritization of objectives: The main aims of this analysis is to find the performance-deficiencies of the organization as a whole vis-à-vis other organizations, and to create in it abilities to face new challenges in future. It involves a) a detailed analysis of the organization’s current and future objectives, b) its present and proposed organization structure, c) strengths and weaknesses of its present human resources on different performance parameters, and d) its strategies and plans for future business growth etc.

ii) Job or Task Analysis: The aims of this analysis are to find performance-deficiencies at the level of different tasks, ways to correct these deficiencies, and the most efficient method for performing the task. This includes job-analysis as well as job re-designing. As a part of TNA, it is a systematic analysis of jobs to identify job contents, as well as knowledge, skills and aptitudes required to perform the job more efficiently. Particular attention should be paid to the real tasks to be performed, the methods to be used, and the way employees learn these methods and the new performance standards required of employees.

iii) Person Analysis: The aim of this analysis is to find performance-deficiencies and define new performance- expectations, at the level of different employees on the same job. Special attention should be paid on the following points:

Deficiency analysis: specific areas where individuals are performance-deficient and need special training,

Potential analysis: the capability of present employee to learn new skills and behaviors and move up in his career progression.

Information for this analysis can be found in performance appraisal reports, personnel records, etc.

iv) Work Environment Analysis: TNA’s last focus of analysis is work environment; the capacity to perform will not result in desired performance until three other variables are also present i.e.

motivation of the employee, and

conducive work support system (supportive supervisor, co-workers, reference persons, and

a supportive reward and performance appraisal system.

1.2.2.TRAINING OBJECTIVES.AND CRITERION FOR EVALUATING TRAINING

In general, the main objectives of training could be:

to improve organizational effectiveness

by improving efficiency, productivity, motivation, safety, versatility, promotability of the employees,

by building better employer-employee relations as well as better employee – employee relations.

by preparing employees and organization for future challenges and opportunities and for change.

to improve work experience for the job incumbents:

by removing their current and future performance deficiencies,

by improving employee morale and motivation,

1.3. TRAINING TECHNIQUES OR METHODS OF TRAINING

They can be divided into two groups as follows:

TECHNIQUES OF TRAINING

On-the Job techniques Off-the Job Techniques

Job Instruction Training *. Lecture Method

Vestibule Training. * Conference (discussion) Method

Job Rotation * Case study Method,

Apprenticeship * Simulation: a) Role Playing,

Coaching b) In basket exercises,c) Business Games.

Internship. * Sensitivity Training.

* Programmed Instructions

1. ON THE JOB TRAINING METHODS:

In these methods, training is provided on the job, in realistic job situations, at employers’ cost and time. The trainee usually learns as well as earns. In terms of learning principles, there is higher motivation, participation, and involvement of the trainees in the learning process. There is also quick transference of learning to the job. However, its biggest limitation is that the supervisor-trainers may not take full interest in the training, may only fulfill the ritual of training and leave the trainee to sink and swim at his own risk.

The main methods of on-the job training are:

i) Job Instruction Method: It is also called, ‘on the job training ‘. In this method the trainee is placed directly on the job under the care of his immediate supervisor. This training involves five steps: First, the supervisor-trainer explains to him the basic nature of the job, rules, procedures, methods, ‘dos’ and ‘don’ts ‘ etc. Second, he demonstrates to him, step-by step, how the work is done, explaining every step carefully. Third, he makes the trainee practice the work in front of him repeatedly, guiding him every time when he falters because of lack of confidence or skill. At the fourth step the supervisor allows the trainee to perform simple routines at first at his own and then more difficult operations in his guidance. Lastly, the supervisor leaves the trained worker free under the guidance of some senior co-worker and occasionally checks his progress and gives him more practical tips.

The main advantages of this method are: i) It is easily organized, and realistic, ii) it stimulates high motivation, iii) it speeds up the worker’s adjustment to his superior and fellow workers, iv) its cost is less, v) in terms of learning principles the method is job-relevant, facilitates repetition and positive transfer, provides active participation, and immediate knowledge of results.

The main disadvantages are: i) The immediate supervisor may be a poor instructor or unwilling instructor, ii) the worker in his haste for immediate production, may fail to learn the best way of doing the job, iii) the actual costs, considering lost time of trainee and trainer, as well as the wasted material and damaged equipment, may be heavy, and iv) this training is often too brief and poorly structured to provide complete training.

ii) Vestibule Training: In this method, the trainees, before being placed on the job, are trained, in a training-workshop attached and adjacent to the main production line almost on identical equipment, but by trained instructors.

This training is more systematic and complete because it moves on the principle of progressive learning, i.e. first learn the first step and then only move to the learning of the second step. This gives greater satisfaction and confidence to the trainee and saves costly equipment from misuse.

However, its cost is a little higher because it requires spare equipment, special instructors, and a special training workshop near the main production line.

This type of training is given to workers on technical jobs where costly equipment is used and the operations require meticulous moves, or where the operation cycle is long and involves several workstations and workers performing several manipulations on the way.

iii) Job Rotation: This is a method of training in which a worker is moved systematically from one job to the other job, in such a manner that he learns and masters the nuances of different jobs of the same order and level in the same department or in different departments. This training gives him a wider exposure, develops in him multiple skills, allows management to use his services in different department on different jobs, and prepares him to assume supervisory responsibility for all the jobs he learnt during training. In management development programmes this technique is known as ‘position rotation’ technique.

The main advantages of this training are: a) it trains workers in a variety of duties and responsibilities and thus develops multiple skills. b) Workers also get an overall perspective of related activities and jobs; c) It helps management to use the services of these workers on multiple jobs as per staff requirements. d) Learning is more effective because of higher motivation (variety of skills and challenges), active participation in learning process, quick transference of skills to jobs, and prompt feedback on progress etc. e) it improves the marketability of the trained employees’ skills, he can easily get alternative employment anywhere.

The main limitations of this method are: i) this training is time-consuming and costly too. ii) Due to individual differences, people are not equally suited for all jobs. iii) It weakens a workers commitment to a given job. iv) Placement of worker might create a problem when a particular workers shows inclination for a different job than the one being offered to him.

iv) Apprenticeship Training: This is a very old system for training artisans. In this system a new worker is ‘tutored and mentored’ by an established craftsman in the intricacies of the trade for a considerable period of time, say from two to five years. In this training the emphasis is placed first on the development of right attitudes and aptitudes and then on the intricacies of the trade and lastly on developing creative genius in the trade.

In the modern version, classroom instructions are imparted typically in the evening at local training school for about 144 or more hours per year. Each apprentice is usually given a workbook consisting of reading materials, tests to be taken and practice problems to be solved. The apprentice serves as ‘assistant’ and learns the craft by working with a fully skilled member of the trade called a ‘Journeyman’.

This training is used in such trades, crafts, and technical fields in which proficiency can be acquired only through practice over a relatively long period of time in and under direct supervision of experts. At the end of the training, the person is promoted to the position of a journeyman. This training is intense, lengthy and usually on one-to-one basis.

v) Internship Training: This training combines a heavy dose of theoretical and practical training for developing professional knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes in the trainees. Training imparted in such professions as medicine, para-medicines, nursing, accountancy, law, computers etc. provide very apt examples of this training. In this training, the internees, after or alongside the passing of theory examination .have to undergo an intense internship training at actual place of professional practice e.g. hospitals, nursing homes, audit firms, law courts, etc. under the close guidance of established practitioners and learn practical tips and skills.

vi) Coaching and Counseling: At management levels, coaching and counseling of immediate subordinates by their managers to make them a better fit at the job and for improving their job skills and abilities, is a common practice. Coaching is similar to apprenticeship to some extent because the coach attempts to provide a model for the trainee to copy. However, this is less formal than apprenticeship training, because it generally does not include classroom sessions. Further, it is provided only when needed rather than as a part of a carefully planned program.

In management development programs the designated trainee may be inducted as an ‘assistant to’ the manager or as his ‘understudy’. This training also involves effective use of main learning principles: relevance, participation, feedback. and job-transference.

This type of coaching thrives in ‘a climate of confidence’, a climate in which subordinates respect the integrity, achievements and capability of their superiors. Its greatest advantage is individualized informal instructions, concentrating on those specific stimulus-situations, which subordinates find hardest to deal with, and those specific performance-requirements which subordinates find hardest to improve. The kind and quality of feedback provided also has great impact on subordinates. However, this training is less effective, if relations between trainee and coach are ambiguous or lack mutual trust.

2. OFF THE JOB TRAINING TECHNIQUES

These training progammes take place away from the daily pressure of the job and are conducted by highly competent resource persons, like consultants, technicians and academicians etc. who have training expertise. Its main advantages are, full attention on training aspect, guidance by the best experts in the area, freeing of the busy executives from often-unwanted instructional task, and freedom to the trainee from the daily pressure of work routine.

However, this has some limitations too: e.g. poor transferability to the job-more often the trainee learns new facts and principles at lectures, workshops, and conferences but have no idea how to apply what he has learned, once he is back in his job.

(I) Lecture Method: To make this method effective the instructor expert must plan his lecture by taking into consideration: who comprise his audience, what do they need from him, what is the time available, and what and how will he like to convey it. The lecture should be brief and to the point, presenting the theme of the subject in a manner that arouses interest in the audience from the start. The speaker should be poised, courteous, and sincere; his gestures and actions should be spontaneous. Affectations are extremely distracting and annoying. It is best to use simple language that has less chance of being misunderstood.

The main advantages of this method are: i) large number of trainees can be covered at the same time, ii) it is cost-effective, and iii) it is also an efficient method for acquiring latest knowledge in the field.

The main limitations are: i) it gives little opportunity for active practice, knowledge of results, or transfer of learning, ii) there is danger of over-learning when the experts try to cover too much in too little time, and iii) this method can not meet the needs of individual differences among learners–their backgrounds, personality , motivations etc.

The lecture method may be strengthened with the use of several instructional audio-visual aids like Blackboards, Flip-charts, Magnetic Boards, Overhead Projectors as tools of effective presentation, and short visuals, slides, enactments, case films etc. as tools to highlight the concepts. These aids make presentations more lively, precise and understandable. Further, the contents get etched in the memory of the trainees more permanently.

II) Conference (Discussion) Method: This method encourages the participation of all members of the group in an exchange of opinions, ideas, and criticism. It is a small group discussion in which leader plays a neutral role providing guidance and feedback. This method is effective when the material needs clarification and elaboration or where lively discussion would facilitate understanding all the implications of a problem and in developing creative and effective solutions to the problems at hand.

The main objectives of this method are: a) developing the decision-making and problem-solving skills of participants, b) presenting new and sometimes complex ideas and concepts, c) changing and modifying attitudes through group discussions. The method can draw on the learning principles of motivation, participation and feedback.

III) Programmed Instructions: It is also called a teaching machine. It was developed in the late 1950s for both school and industrial applications. Its main features are: i) the trainees learn at their own place, ii) the instructors are not a key part of the learning, iii) the material to be learnt is broken down into very small units or stages, iv) each step logically builds upon those that have preceded it, v) the trainee is given immediate knowledge of results for each answer he gives, and vi) there is active participation by the learner at each step of the programme. The programmed instructions include elaborate teaching machines, films, sound tapes, programmed books, illustrations, printed material, diagrams etc. The core feature of programmed instructions is participation by the trainee and immediate feedback to him.

IV) Vocational Guidance: Vocational guidance is a facilitative process, in which an expert advises individual employees about the type of jobs, and careers most suitable for them taking into consideration their interests, aptitudes and abilities and the available or likely to be available job/position opportunities in the organization or employment market. The expert is called vocational and career counselor. In a working organization he guides new employees in the selection of the right assignment for placement. He also guides existing employees in the selection of their career goals and progression paths. Vocational guidance involves the following steps: i) collection of information from the candidate and his parents regarding the person’s past history, ii) securing information about the candidate’s aptitudes and interests through various psychological tests, and of his occupational abilities and skills through various trade tests iii) Making an opinion about the candidate’s talent, interests and potential, iv) Matching the candidate’s capabilities with various jobs/positions available or likely to be available in the organization v) Giving vocational advice and guidance to the candidate how he can benefit.

V) Case Study Method: It is a written description of an actual situation in business which provokes, in the reader, the need to decide what is going on, what the situation really is, or what the problems are, and what can and should be done. Taken from actual experience of organizations, these cases represent attempts to describe, as accurately as possible, real problems that managers face. Trainees study the cases to determine problems, analyze causes, develop alternative solutions, select the best and workable, and debate and defend their choices. Case study can provide stimulating discussions among participants, as well as excellent opportunities for individuals to develop their analytical and judgmental abilities. It appears to be an ideal method to promote decision-making abilities within the constraints of limited data. Cases are usually organized around one or more problems or issues that are confronted by an organization. They are meant to illustrate problema