The Concepts Of Training And Development In Organisation Management Essay

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The world in which organization, managers and human resource professionals operate today would be unrecognizable to their peers 35 years ago (Beardwell and Claydon 2007). The pace of innovation, development of technology, the turbulence of economic conditions and the professionalization of management and human resource management are just some areas where the “escalating and seemingly impossible demands” (Kanter, 1989) that face organization have had an enduring impact on the context in which they function today. In other words, the way organization develops people has changed over time. Approaches to learning have shifted as the practice and purpose of training and developing people have grown in importance, broaden in scope and become more sophisticated in method. (Reid, Barrington and Brown, 2004: 9 cited in Beardwell and Claydon 2007). Latest studies have shown that organizations greatly invest in Human Resource Development interventions so as to keep their employees updated and skilled in order to attain job performance, job satisfaction and job involvement. These skills can be conveyed by providing the necessary technical/non-technical training (Rowold, 2008).

From a HR focus article (2009) on training and development, it was cited that the smallest companies (those with up to 50 full time staff) have stepped up sending employees to outside training: 45.7 percent of training in organizations of that size is now done that way, compared with 35.6 percent a year ago. This is the only group to increase the use of outside resources. When it comes to specific training methods in use now, the leading ways organizations train include webcasts, Web conferences, and webinars, collectively cited by 84 percent of respondents. A close second is traditional classroom instruction (82 percent). Self-study with books, magazines, and other no electronic means was third at 70 percent. Larger organizations favour classroom instruction: 77.8 percent of those with 1,000 or more full time staff report this is the leading way they train. Other favourites of the largest organizations include computer-based training (independent learning); blended learning (classroom and computer/electronic); webcasts, Web conferences, and webinars; and self-study through non electronic means (all of which were flagged by 66.7 percent of respondents in this group).

Employee performance is an important building block of an organization and factors which lay the foundation for high performance must be analyzed by the organizations (Abbas and Yaqoob 2009). An organisation cannot progress by an individual’s effort, but by the collective effort of everyone in the organization. Performance is a major multidimensional construct aimed to achieve results and has a strong link to strategic goals of an organization (Mwita, 2000). For the people involved with human resource development, “the performance appraisal interview is widely regarded as one of the main instruments for identifying training and development needs at the individual level” (Armstrong and Baron 1998: 8).

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2.2 THE CONCEPTS OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

According to Reynolds et al (2004, pp.1) training is defined “as a set of activities which react to present needs and is focused on the instructor and contrast with learning as a process that focuses on developing individual and organizational potential and building capabilities for the future”. Training is essentially a management tool derived to foster, develop and increase skills and knowledge base of employees and also employers with a view to ultimately increasing both the employees and organizations performance in terms of efficiency, effectiveness and overall productivity.

Development is a more advanced tool which essentially allows the employees to progress along a career plan pr path with the skills and knowledge gained over time. It allows employees progress according to the needs of the organization.

Training and development go hand in hand and are vital in the pursuit of organizational effectiveness, efficiency and overall productivity and performance in actualizing set goals and targets.

2.3 BENEFITS OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

It has often been claimed that there are many obstacles to the establishment of training and development models and activities. One of the main setbacks to training and developing employees as claimed centers on the issue of financial resources in other words money. Training and development programs can be largely ignored due to lack of resources (Karbasioun and Mulder, 2004). This hence raises the question: Must training and development have a huge program fee? Training can be conducted free by managers and employees meeting and discussing ways in which performance can be maximized in a particular department. The only cost is the time spent during the meeting which does not affect the budgetary allocations. Even if money has to be spent on such a program, there is the adage that money has to be spent to be earned. This may in turn benefit the organization by offering the chance to teach and share experiences with employees from other organizations which in turn become an attractive money making venture to the teaching organization. If the organization can provide reliable quality training and development, it can become an important source of income and revenue for it.

Another often heard excuse for abandoning training and development program is the time involved in such activities. But this can also be countermanded by stating the benefits inherent in discussing organizational procedures where time saving hints and tips, ideas and short cuts can be mentioned which in the long run may save the same time used in organizing the development activities. Time must be given in other to make employees and the organization more productive in the long run (Tessema et al, 2005).

Management’s commitment to training and development is not only an attempt to improve the capabilities and performance of employees, but also a way of motivating the employees and making them feel valued as part of the organization. The emotional benefits of such a program need not be underestimated. A well-trained and developed employee workforce will have increased morale leading to increased commitment to the organization which in the long run increases the organization’s productivity (Badan, 2007). According to Guest (1999, pp.143), “Employees should be treated as valued assets, a source of competitive advantage through their commitment, adaptability and quality of skills and performance”.

Another benefit of engaging in training and development programs is that it increases the professionalism of the organization and alters the way it is viewed by employees, future customers, present customers, its’ rivals and also the global market. This enables the organization to be more influential and leads to increased membership in both national and international circles (Bitsch and Olynk, 2007).

Many entrepreneurs and management of corporations seem to view training and development as an option and not a necessity (Clark and Montgomery, 1999). This point of view can be damaging to business activities in both the short term and in the long term. It has to be rationalized that training and development is not an expense but an investment towards the betterment of individuals working in an organization: it is a means of ensuring employees do not remain stagnant and are always constantly and consistently receiving new skills and knowledge in other to be more efficient and effective on the job.

In summary, the benefits derived from engaging in a quality model of training and development will have the following desirable effects;

Benefits for the organization:

improving the level of communication between groups and individuals

making organizational goals, targets policies and regulations viable

providing a conducive environment for learning, growth and coordinated activities

makes the corporation a better place to work in

increases the reputation of the organization and the performance of the staff

Benefits to the employee:

building up self confidence, self determination, self development and loyalty to the organization

increases employees decision making and creates an avenue for problem solving

provides the employees with a clear guide on job performance and career pathway

provides employees with skills and knowledge in handling leadership roles, communicating effectively and organizational attitudes

2.4 MODELS OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

There are many models of training and development that have shown promise and results in recent years which have led to their establishment as bedrock rule principles of training and development in some organizations. Some of these models are: Human Performance Technology (HPT), Performance Based Instructional Design (PBID), Instructional Systems Design (ISD), and Total Quality Management (TQM). This work will focus and elucidate upon the models of ISD and TQM.

2.4.1 INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DESIGN (ISD): ADDIE SYSTEM

According to Rothwell and Kanzanas (1997), the ISD model was created by the United States Armed Forces as a way to improve the human performance of its military men on the battlefield. The ISD system was designed not just to improve performance on a random basis but to ensure that learning is designed in specific processes and towards specific purposes; be specific to a targeted market or audience and also measureable in other to determine the outcome or results of the system. The ADDIE system is the most popular of this model of T&D. it is a generic systematic method for T&D which follows a step-by-step sequence of events.

ADDIE model is derived from the first letters of the various processes involved (Rothwell and Benkowski, 2002). These processes are: Analysis; Design; Development; Implementation; and finally Evaluation. The ADDIE model is illustrated below:

http://edweb.sdsu.edu/Courses/EDTEC700/ETP/images/addie.jpg

FIGURE 2.1 ILLUSTRATRATION OF THE ADDIE MODEL OF T&D

SOURCE: ADAPTED BY THE RESEARCHER 2010

In the Analysis Stage, the gap in performance is determined through valuable and valid data and information on employees’ and organizational performance as against the targeted or set goals. This stage basically involves need analysis, task analysis and job analysis with a view to forming the basis for the training program.

The Design Stage follows through from the analysis of organizational goals with a view to creating an outline or strategy for delivering T&D to achieve set goals. The data collected in the analysis stage will be used to determine the skills, knowledge, content material, media and mode of presentation as well as the attitudes that are to be provided in the training.

In the Development Stage instructor or trainer activity guides are determined for the greatest impact to the leaner. Determination of the mode of delivery is determined here whether to use traditional classroom settings and scenarios, web based training tutorials and format, role playing and simulation exercises. Efforts will be taken to ensure all materials are ready to be used by the learner and any existing material incapable of delivering results is replaced and replaced with new ones.

The Implementation Stage cannot be underestimated because this is where the transfer of skills and knowledge takes place. This involves the learner showing a mastery or understanding of the skills and knowledge passed across by the instructor. The effectiveness of the training materials is also measured against set targets.

Finally, the Evaluation Stage as the stage name involves measuring the impact and value of the training and development exercise. This involves determining the efficiency and effectiveness of the trainer, the training deployment method utilized the overall content of the training as well as the learner’s perceived skill and knowledge gained. Formative assessment occurs between each stage of the ADDIE model while summative assessment at the end of the process. For proper evaluation, learners should be sought to gather their perceived opinions on the training methods, procedures and overall benefits.

Despite the versatile nature of ADDIE model, several criticisms have been labeled against it. One of these being, the stages of design and development do not merely fit in a neat little box. In that, in the real world, there are dynamic interplay between writing objectives and goals of T&D and actually developing engaging activities to ensure vital T&D (Dick and Carney, 1996). Also, in ADDIE model, the evaluation stage is only highlighted and does not go into details on how to evaluate or expanciate on how to determine a sound outcome. For these reasons, in addition to the use of the ADDIE model, the Cognitive Design Paradigm has been added for viability (Leshin et al, 1992). This paradigm, when used in conjunction with ADDIE model, aims to provide a clear road map with specific aims, objectives and targets which are all equally measureable in order to reduce complexity, uncertainty and unclear outcomes.

2.4.2 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM):

TQM is a management style which advocates for customer, employee and company satisfaction by ensuring a zero defect in products and services ensuring that the right thing is done the first time. It strives to ensure not problem correction but problem absence.

An organization that incorporates TQM into its bedrock operational principles has the following characteristics:

an open problem solving environment;

participatory decision-making;

trust amongst all levels of staff; and

A sense of shared responsibility for problem solving and achievements.

TQM requires more than just the meeting of traditional rejection rate standards but involves the most effective and efficient use of company resources by providing consistent quality at a competitive price. Business plans, strategies, processes and management action will require continuous and continual revamping in order to develop a culture where the idea of TQM becomes a fundamental, deep-rooted framework in each functional department of the organization.

TQM approach involves identifying the needs and wants of customer groups and then propelling the organization towards the satisfaction of said needs and wants. Employees must be empowered to make decisions that will lead to and ensure a high level of satisfaction. This will mean that the organization will have to train its employees in order to improve their performance and also to make sure customers are happy about products and services. By constantly and continuously engaging in improvements in products and services, and training and retraining employees with new skills, a total quality approach is being introduced (Walton, 1990).

2.5. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT AND EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

The opportunities available for employees’ T&D has been generally accepted as one of the paramount decisions regarding employee happiness, commitment to the organization and the general performance of said employees. This section of the study aims to elucidate how T&D programs impact upon the performance of the employees who participate in them.

Violino (2001) expresses that T&D on the job is a factor employees look out in the hunt for a job, why they join a certain employer and also as a reason to remain in the employment of an organization or leave for another. Ranstad (2001) conducted a survey of American and Canadian employees and 80% of respondents opined that receiving good training on the job to increase skills and knowledge base was a key component of their job satisfaction and determinant of their performance. Another study conducted by Shields and Ward (2001) on nurses in the United Kingdom observed that majority of them found training opportunities to have a stronger impact on their job performance than pay package structure in place. Similar surveys and studies carried out by Blum and Kaplan (2000), Melymuka (2000) and Violino (2001) registered the same results.

Job training satisfaction refers to the extent to which people like/accept or dislike/reject a set of planned training activities developed to add skills, knowledge and organizational attitudes in order for them to perform more efficiently and effectively (Landy, 1985; Spector, 1997, and Patrick, 2001). JTS is a measure or evaluation of employees’ opinions and views on the formal training programs offered by the organization.

JTS is vital because it shapes the views employees hold against the organization and also determines their satisfaction levels regarding self development and their ability to handle work jobs and tasks which in turn will determine their productivity and performance on the job. Due to the importance of JTS, Bartlett (2001, p. 349) opines that human resource professionals and management of organizations need to “adapt new research methods to demonstrate to organizational decision makers that training and development contributes to desired work place attitudes . . . which will in turn influence behaviors such as commitment and performance”.

In summary, the training and development activities and programs an organization engages in have far and wide reaching consequences and effects on both the employees of the organization and the organization in question. Recent surveys and studies on this subject matter have showed this to be the case. JTS of employees,, to a large extent, determines the overall productivity and performance of the organization and its workers.

2.6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JOB TRAINING SATISFACTION OF EMPLOYEES AND CUSTOMER SATISFACTION

Researchers have undertaken numerous studies to observe the seeming correlation between employee satisfaction and the effects on customer satisfaction. They have found and proved that there is a direct correlation between these two concepts (Lindgreen et al, 2006). Some of the key findings of these studies are highlighted below;

The growth of an organization is stimulated primarily by the satisfaction of its customers making them loyal to the services of the organization.

Employees who are satisfied with their jobs and training and development programs in place provide higher levels of performance commitment and customer service.

Employee job training satisfaction arises from the efficient and effective training activities in order to provide high quality customer service and deliver results to customers.

Maintaining and increasing the skills, professional attitudes and knowledge base of employees is an integral element to creating a robust customer relationship (Greenberg, 2001). Dolye (2001) establishes the fact that good relations with customers are determined by how employees make they feel and how they respond to the needs and desires of these customers. Highly trained staff can provide customers with more value and better services than the less trained staff.

The Baldrige Criteria is a useful method of integration which shows the critical connection between employee JTS and quality customer services and satisfaction. The Baldrige Criteria serves as a model to integrate employment performance with customer satisfaction using some key variables. Baldrige makes the connection between customer happiness and retention, and the service provided by employees which stems from the organization’s strategic stance on providing quality training and development programs.

2009-2010 Baldrige Business-Public Sector- Nonprofit Criteria Framework

FIGURE 2.2 ILLUSTRATION OF BALDRIGE CRITERIA

SOURCE: BALDRIGE OFFICIAL WEBSITE (2010)

2.7 SUMMARY

This literature review chapter sought to critically provide a theoretical underpinning upon which the research work will be based. This chapter espoused the concepts of T&D and the numerous benefits of engaging in quality T&D activities and programs to employees, customers and the organization. The global economy of today makes it necessary for employees to receive valuable on-the-job training to further improve themselves thereby becoming better at their jobs; becoming more loyal and committed to the organization; improving performance of not only themselves but also the strategically defined goals and targets of the organization; and also ensuring customer satisfaction and loyalty is achieved.

The ADDIE model and TQM principles were elucidated upon as models for ensuring quality training and development programs, procedures and processes are attained. This will eventually lead to employee job training satisfaction (JTS) which is highly instrumental in determining the motivation, commitment levels and performance output of employees. It is also essential to note that employees may be satisfied with some aspects of the training program and dissatisfied with others. It is important not to view these programs in a broad sense but to delve deeper, looking at the various stages and process in order to determine how to better the process and program. As the program develops and betters, employee satisfaction with on-the-job training permeates all aspects of overall job satisfaction (Tansky and Cohen, 2001). Addressing specific processes and procedures also complies with other authors have stated on the subject matter (Lin et al., 2003).

The literature review evaluated the relationship between employee T&D and employee performance and this was found to have a positive correlation. Also analyzed was the impact employee T&D has on customer satisfaction which was also positively correlated. The new skills and knowledge gained by employees through training and development enabled these employees to deliver quality customer services thereby making customers happy and fulfilled. Senior management of companies and organizations need to tailor T&D programs to critically meet the expectations of its consumers and customers to ensure a smooth relationship and repeat business.

Areas in which this research requires more work are: the gaps in T&D programs; the methods of delivery of T&D activities and programs; and more importantly, more in-depth analysis of the models of T&D and the relationship between employee JTS and customer satisfaction which could not be sufficiently covered in this literature chapter due to time and word count constraints.