Cities and Development in the 21st Century

Urban geography explores the distribution of towns and cities and the socio-spatial similarities and contrasts that exist between them. Even though all cities have individual character and something that makes them unique, fundamentally they all exhibit common features such as transportation lines, residential space, economic activities. They also share common problems to varying degrees, including inadequate housing, economic decline, poverty, ill health and environmental pollution causing a degree of segregation along socio-economic, geographical or political lines. These shared characteristics and concerns mark the concepts for the study of urban geography.

Technological changes which are vital for economic development influence the pattern of urban development growth. The effects of macro-level technological change are directly proportional to the concept of periods of high economic rate of expansion and development. The Kondratieff cycle is a long-term economic cycle believed to be the result of technological innovation which produces a long period of prosperity. (Pacione, 2009) Different technological eras have coincided with advancements in communication and a plethora of different modes of transportation. Brussels boasts a modern road network combining bridges and tunnels. It also has a fully integrated bus tram metro and railway system with the Belgium railways (SNCB) overseeing all rail infrastructures and railway stations with the 19 communes maintaining the road network. Deindustrialisation post-war and the emergence of tertiary industries centred upon micro-electronics, digital telecommunications, robotics and biotechnology have resulted in Brussels evolving into a ‘smart city’ with an integration of digital technologies into urban processes. Smart devices are poised to revolutionise our everyday lives ultimately changing the character and pace of urbanisation within Brussels.

Culture can be best expressed as being ‘part of everyday life’ which continuously evolves through social interaction by mobility, accessibility and movement with other cultures and people. It covers a diverse range of cultural phenomena encompassing languages, religion, traditional customs, art, food and drink. Culture gives a sense of belonging culminating in a strong identity. This is sometimes referred to a topohilia.

The city of Brussels can be described as having a subjective structure with the physical symbolising the character and uniqueness of the city which in turn has been shaped by its inhabitants over time giving it meaning and identity. Belgium has a rich history going back centuries which, moulded the fabric of society through cultural diversification but also has allowed it to flourish within an urban environment. Several hubs of ethnic diversity originated from the Eastern Bloc and Arab countries.

Belgium is situated within Europe, bordering France, Luxembourg, Germany and Netherlands. The majority of the Belgian population is made up of the Dutch-speaking Flemish group. Their history derives from the medieval Flanders which occupies the northern part of Belgium. In earlier centuries, Belgium had been occupied by the Celtic tribes which were eventually conquered by Germanic people and introduced the Dutch language in to society. The language Flemish was developed which is a variation of the Dutch language and is the official language of Belgium. The Walloons mainly occupy the Southern and Eastern parts of Belgium. As the Germanic people invaded northern Belgium, the Roman rule in Southern Belgium continued to develop which was spoken in French. (Sawe, 2019)

Belgium’s history has been intertwined with its neighbours of Netherlands, Germany, France and Luxembourg. Following Napoleons defeat in Waterloo, the redistribution of territory was discussed with the outcome being the creation of the United Kingdom of Netherlands. However, there was huge conflicts within this country due to religion. The people in the region of Flanders in the north were mainly protestant with the Walloons in the south being Catholic. The Flemish in collaboration with the Walloons staged a revolt due to a combination of religion and the unfair treatment by the Dutch- dominated United Kingdom of Netherlands. the Belgian revolution occurred. Leopold I was named the first King of Belgium in 1831. The country to this day is still divided by a language boundary between the Latin-derived French and Germanic Dutch (Flemish). (Waterfield, 2007)

Between 1945 -1960 labour was recruited from Italy, Turkey, Morocco and Tunisia for the growing coal industry. More migrants have been allowed to enter Belgium so that families can reunite. There is also free travel and entry in to Belgium if you are an EU citizen. Avenue de Stalingrad situated near the Gare du Nord is renown for being the home of 2^nd and 3^rd generation migrants. Shops are situated on the ground floor and accommodation above. Due to Arab/ Eastern European migration, many restaurants and shops from their own ethnic backgrounds which creates a large diversity. For example, a store situated in Marolles called Bazar Al Baraka contains Karans and other typical religious artefacts. (Personal experience, Brussels, April 2019) This part of Brussels was very run down and dirty, with a high Police presence. Although, high value cars were found in the area which shows that there is individual wealth, but not wealth within the community.  Drugs were in place in the area with drug runs being made in visible daylight with no apparent care

Photograph of Religious books from shops in Avenue de Stalingrad: April 2019

for police presence. (Personal experience, Brussels, April 2019)

This seems to be a growing problem for locals, in specific those of who are from Muslim backgrounds. The main religion in Belgium is Roman Catholicism of which 58% adheres to. Refugees who live in Brussels are living in ‘untenable’ conditions. There has been an influx of refugees and in 2018 23,443 people applied for asylum in Belgium of which 46% were accepted, many housed in Brussels resulting in greater diversity. (CCGRS, 2019)

The area of Molenbeek district is renowned for the conversion of locals in to extremists. Brahim Abdeslam seemed no different to his peers, but on November 13^th 2018 he drove to a café on Boulevard Voltaire and was part of a wave of attacks that killed 130 innocent people. Molenbeek is home to generations of immigrants and Belgians of North African descent. With very few opportunities, many locals feel like opportunities are non-existent as they feel neglected by authorities and rejected by the rest of Belgian society. This makes it a lot easier for them to be radicalised. Many youths speak about bearded men who talk about ‘helping your brothers in Syria’. A total number of 30 Molenbeek residents have left for Syria since 2011 showing there is a huge cultural difference between the white Belgians and 4^th generation migrants. (Hendawi, 2015)

Fig 1: Map to show location of Molenbeek

 As you move closer towards the city centre and towards the Pentagon, there is a visible change in the quality of buildings and infrastructure. (Personal experience, Brussels, April 2019) During the reign of Leopold II, he focused on establishing Belgium as an imperial power. ‘The builder King’ engaged in a huge urban restructuring programme inspired by Houssmanns redesign of Paris. He changed the city structure similar to La Place which contains big central squares connected by Boulevards. He wanted a modern European city that focused on big green public spaces, health, sanitary and security. Evidence of his work include the Parliament building, diplomatic embassy’s, Palais de Justice and the refurbishment and expansion of the Royal Palace. Luxury shops are situated along Avenue Louise accompanied by flat pavestones compared to the cobbled stones situated along the avenue de Stalingrad.

Belgium has a diverse range of phenomena from languages, art, food and drink amongst other things which all helps to shapes the community. Many of their delicacies are available for exportation which include Leffe Blond beer and Belvas Chocolates. 

Photograph of Belgian speciality beers: April 2019

Art Nouveau and Art Deco were only made possible due to the role that Leopold II played overseas. Leopold II colonized the Congo exploiting the country of its resources, killing thousands of people in the process. The construction of rubber plantations and sales created a huge amount of income.

Brussels is known as the Art Nouveau capital thanks to Victor Horta’s exuberant town houses. Art Nouveau was named after the famous Parisian Art gallery ‘La Maison de l’Art Nouveau’ owned by avant-garde art collector Siegfried Bing. Art Nouveau was a response to certain styles such as Neoclassicism and it was a reaction to the Industrial Revolution. In Belgium it was promoted by Les Vingt and La Libre Esthetique. The style of Art Nouveau concentrates and embraces natural forms and shapes such as curves in a ‘butterfly esque’ way. ‘Flowery and plant- inspired, highly decorative items and intricate curvilinear patterns of sinous asymmetrical lines characterise Art Nouveau’ (Gentis, 2017). Art Nouveau brought art in to architecture.

Field Sketch of Muse Horta: April 2019

Today, Art Nouveau is seen as a symbol and important bridge between Neoclassicism and Modernism. A large number of monuments are on the UNESCO World Heritage List which include the Muse Horta.  It’s the largest private house commissioned by the chemistry magnate Armand Solvay in 1894. The Horta Museum is located in the private house and studio of Victor Horta and is situated at 23-25 rue Americaine in Saint-Gilles, Brussels. The house contains typical Art Nouveau pieces with the mosaics, stained glass and wall decorations being retained from the original build. The layout of the property included an open plan design of living. In the town house style building, which consisted of a narrow several story building, exterior large windows, extravagant balcony, window rails, large frames are a clear example of the Nouveau effect introduced by Victor Horta. Horta was very influential in the art world with many artists taking his ideas. In order to get Horta to commission a building you needed to be extremely wealthy due to his reputation as a famous artist/architect.

Photograph of Muse Horta: April 2019

Around 1910, just before the 1^st World War, Art Deco was slowly introduced in place of Art Nouveau. Art Deco was in some ways the complete opposite of Art Nouveau; geometric forms and expensive materials like gold and ivory. Art Deco represented luxury and quality signified by straight, simple and precise structures. However, this turned out to be its downfall. Due to the Great Depression in the United States in 1929, many clients were not able to afford to pay for these luxury materials.

Albert Van Huffel is known for the design of the Basilica of the Sacred Heart which still ranks 5^th in the largest churches in the world. Another Art Deco gem is Flagey situated in Flagey square. Former headquarters to the National Institute for Radio Broadcasting, it is now an important cultural centre. Its ship like shape and size makes it an important Brussels landmark.

These hotels in Rogier are a prime example of Art Nouveau (right) and Art Deco (left). Rogier was redeveloped in 1958 as Brussels was hosting the Expo 58. This used to be the Old station of Gare du Nord but due to population increase it was flattened and a new larger station was constructed a few hundred metres away. These hotels in the square were originally railway hotels which at the time would have been architectural statements.

Photograph of the comparison of Art Deco and Art Nouveau hotels: April 2019

Innovations such as the advent of global telecommunications have had a marked impact on the structure and functioning of the global economy. The interaction of global ‘triggers forces’ and locally contingent factors results in a number of different processes of urban change. (Pacione, 2009)

The Charleroi Canal played an important role in the ‘economic boom’ of Brussels. As urban and commercial growth grew, the arrival of raw materials such as coal became crucial. In 1827, construction began on linking Brussels to Charleroi and the Hainaut mining area. The opening of the Charleroi Canal enabled coal to be brought in to the city on a massive scale which allowed a spectacular industrial, demographic and urban boom in Brussels. Trade between cities by canals proved very important for Brussels from the 17^th to 20^th century. Nowadays, freights have moved to road and air and the reliance on the canals are not as large. However, the canals are still used for carrying goods. (Anon,2015)

Photograph of Charleroi Canal: April 2019

From the 70s onwards Brussels, like many other large cities experienced a fall in its population as middle- and upper-class families sought accommodation on the outskirts of the city. Today, 53% of white-collar workers don’t live in Brussels. (Personal experience, Brussels, April 2019) Around the area of Anderlecht which is more economically deprived than areas around the Pentagon, blue areas had been earmarked for redevelopment by the canal. However, this has put pressure on locals due to the 3 areas of Brussels, Flanders and Wallonia all needing space and buildings for their government.

Deindustrialisation hit Brussels hard as it went from 160,000 industrial jobs being available in the area to less than 30,000. Along the canal, the tertiary sector gradually replaced primary industry with the canal area being home to 6,000 companies across all sectors. However, this deindustrialisation led to the emergence of brownfield sites and the deterioration of the building stock. Many lower-class citizens inhabited these districts and the figures for income, employment was a cause for concern due to the creation of the Brussels-Capital Region (BCR). Programmes such as Neighbourhood Contracts and Pentagon Development Delegation resulted in the revitalisation of the area. (Anon, 2015)

In todays society, many new methods of transportation have been made to allow easier access in to cities. Brussels boasts a wide range of transport links and is easily accessible by train, tram, metro, bus and canal boat. The metro allows for easy access within the city of Brussels to the eastern and western districts. It was first open in 1976 and has been expanding ever since serving a total of 60 metro stations. Brussels trams are an old transportation means in Brussels which allows a quick and convenient method to get around the inner city. 246km of trams were used in the mid-20^th century, but due to the popularisation of buses and cars only 133km remains today. The development of the city has been made a lot easier due to the railway station and the airports of; Brussels National Airport and Brussels-South Charleroi Airport. In summer 2018, e-scooters were introduced to the centre of Brussels. E-scooters are available to rent between 7am and 10pm. The payment plan is incredibly easy, with all you needing is a compatible smartphone with the app and a credit card. Mostly tourists will use this attraction and it is made affordable with the price costing 0.15 euros per minute after an initial 1 euro start fee. (Personal experience, Brussels, April 2019)

A smart city is a term that captures the multiple, complex relationships between urbanism and ICT. A smart city refers to the development and integration of digital technologies in to urban processes whether this is from transport infrastructure or sensor and camera networks. It also focuses on the integration of computing and digitally-instrumented devices into the urban fabric – ‘everyware’. (Greenfield, 2006). There are 5 key characteristics of Smart Cities; embedding of ICT into urban fabric; business-led urban growth and a ’neoliberal’ approach to governance; social and human aspects of urban life understood from a creativity perspective; an emphasis on social communities: education and social capital; and an emphasis on social and environmental sustainability. Cities are digitally transforming to improve environmental, financial and social aspects of urban life. Across the globe, smart city technology spending reached $80 billion in 2016 and is expected to grow to $135 billion by 2021 according to a report from the International Data Corportion (IDC). (Maddox, 2018)

High tech computers have played an important role in the construction of a ‘smart city’. Data driven digital infrastructure can be used to be able to assess transportation flows, tackling environmental issues and attracting inward investment. It aims to improve the life of citizens whilst allowing the city to become more safe and secure. For example, data from networks of transponders and cameras can be used to monitor a road network in near real time and automatically administer penalties for violations. However, this use of cameras also causes conflicts with many parties concerned over a right to privacy. Sensor technology plays a huge role within a city. Sensors are located on parking spots to show many spaces are left. (Maddox, 2018) For smart waste management sensors are used to be able to show when the bin is full so the government know when they need to collect it. These are just two of the ways in which smart cities are able to save time and money. At traffic lights, vibrations are sent at the pedestrian waiting area in order to help aid the disabled. (Personal experience, Brussels, April 2019)

Specifically, to Brussels many innovations have been brought in to order to increase the economy. The town centres have been pedestrianized in order increase tourism. It also supports environmental aspects due to a reduction in pollution from car emissions which contribute to 47% of all emissions in Brussels. This can be clearly seen on churches and sculptures where there are black carbon emission stains. (Personal experience, Brussels, April 2019) The pedestrian zone has been expanded to include a large part of the Boulevard Anspach, the Place de Brouckere, the Place de la Bourse and the Place de Fontainas which will include 3000 m² of green space. (Anon, 2019) It also includes a system that allows rainfall to be absorbed so that a large part of the water that is used for green spaces comes from an environmentally friendly source. Other initiatives such as graffiti-resistant paint, public lighting with LED lamps, and more intelligent rubbish bins have been put in to place. These rubbish bins contain digital sensors to monitor rubbish and dust levels.  However, negative aspects of the pedestrianization include a further distance to walk from parking centres and an increase in crime due to pickpockets as there are increased tourists.

Urban change is a key process in any city in order to become more economically developed. In order for there to be contemporary urban change to shape the urban environment, there are a number of different trigger factors in place. The roles of cultural change and technological change were discussed showing how each plays its own specific role in making the city unique. It also shows how many trigger factors are interlinked and they all play a significant role in the success of the other. For example, the Art Nouveau and Art Deco era would not have been possible without the political impact of King Leopold II in the Congo.

References

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• CCGRS (2019). Statistics – Belgium | Asylum Information Database. [online] Asylumineurope.org. Available at: https://www.asylumineurope.org/reports/country/belgium/statistics [Accessed 13 May 2019].
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• Pacione, M. (2009). Urban Geography: A global perspective. In Pacione. London: Routledge
• Sawe, B. (2019). Largest Ethnic Groups And Nationalities In Belgium. [online] WorldAtlas. Available at: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/largest-ethnic-groups-and-nationalities-in-belgium.html [Accessed 13 May 2019].
• Waterfield, B. (2007). Belgium, like the EU, is a Frankenstein creation. [online] Telegraph.co.uk. Available at: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3643087/Belgium-like-the-EU-is-a-Frankenstein-creation.html [Accessed 13 May 2019].