Raymond Williams Theory Of Cultural Materialism English Literature Essay

Cultural materialism is a theory which views culture as a productive process, focusing on arts such as literature. Within this culture art is translated as a social use of material means of production. The concept of “literature” is seen as a social development, which according to Williams, only truly developed between the 18th and 19th century, within our culture. The critic explains in his essay Culture is Ordinary, “a culture is a whole way of life, and the arts are part of a social organisation which economic change clearly radically effects” [ii] . I hope to explore Williams’s theories regarding cultural materialism, the link that functions between capitalism and literature, and how it situates literature socially and economically. In order to support his theories, as well as my own, I am going to analyse Emily Bronte’s novel, Wuthering Heights. Focusing both internally on its’ hegemonic class system and portrayal of literature within the novel, I am also going to explore the novel externally, and how the book, as well as literature as a whole, is placed within historical and modern society and its’ economy.

Wuthering heights was published in 1847, during a time of structural social change, and coincidently, four months before Marx and Engels’s book, The Communist manifesto came out. The book acted as a reaction, during a time when social fellowship had been obstructed by the industrial revolution. A new class, that existed between the aristocracy and the working class emerged; the bourgeoisie. A hegemonic, capitalist framework, used previously by the aristocracy, existed as an industrial template for the new class, outlining an ideological way of life. However, with the middle classes’ new found materialism, they separated themselves from association with the working class in order to gain more land, voting rights through the 1832 reform act, and a substantial amount of money. This social change affected literature as William’s notes, “periods of major transition between social systems are commonly marked by the emergence of radically new forms” of literature [iii] . This is indicated lucidly through the emergence of a generation bourjois writers, the Bronte sisters being a prime example.

Wuthering Heights as a piece of literature, can be interpreted as a historical representation of the social and economic difficulties that existed between class and culture at the time. Heathcliff in particular, is emulative of the bourgeoisie, and their betrayal towards the class which they emerged from. Originating from the streets of Liverpool, it has been suggested by critic, Sneiden, that Heathcliff “is a product of a thriving Liverpool slave trade” [iv] . As Earnshaw found him “in the steets of Liverpool; where he picked it up and inquired for its owner” [v] . Despite this mild assumption, Mr Earnshaw insists that Heathcliff is treated as an equal to his blood-related offspring. He is provided with the same rights, and education. However this “creates fresh inequalities in the family hierarchy [vi] ” .Heathcliff’s intrusion and favouritism from Earnshaw upsets the social equilibrium at the ‘Heights, and creates hatred from siblings such as Hindley. Treated unequally by his siblings, especially after the demise of Mr Earnshaw, Heathcliff, “is set to work meaninglessly, as a servant rather than a member of the family [vii] ” and remains at the bottom of a materialist institutional structure installed at the ‘Heights, restoring order in terms of class, as he works as the slave and gypsy he is thought to be. Known for his barbaric behaviour, his romantic escapism with Catherine is obstructed as she chooses to marry the more “civilised” and higher class Edgar Linton. After disappearing for three years and reappearing, Heathcliff, “the gipsy- the ploughboy”, as Edgar remembers him, transforms into a “well-formed man” [viii] of intelligent countenance.

Heathcliff’s transformation mimics that of the bourgeoisie, and his new “capitalist brutality is an extension as well as a negation of the Heights world he knew as a child” [ix] . His motivation feeds through an “obsession with taking revenge on his old enemies” [x] , through social and economic hegemony. Undoubtedly spiteful at how his orphan roots have determined how he is treated by others, Heathcliff uses his new found money and his background of literacy to his advantage, proving he is no “rough diamond” [xi] . However as he is already saturated by the ideological materialist system he was brought up in, instead of fighting it, he becomes deeply embedded in it. He is “neither within society nor outside it” [xii] , as he contradicts himself by becoming top of a heirachy that he was once the bottom of. To solidify his new place in society, he marries into the landed gentry of the Linton’s, a family which he took great dislike towards, “for purely mercenary reasons” [xiii] . It is this type of contradictive behaviour, as critic Eagleton observes, “which encapsulates a crucial truth about bourgeois society” [xiv] .

Through a structure of feeling, as Williams notes, authors such as Bronte “specified exposure and isolation as a general condition” [xv] most specifically through characters Catherine and Heathcliff, using the economic state of money, and the social factors around illegitimacy and heirachy, as its’ connecting instances. Through this Bronte highlights cultural materialism through a fictional piece, situating her piece of literature in a relevant place, in terms of the style of the time, within its’ social and economic contexts.

Willams’ describes “civilisation” as an achieved state of development in Marxism and Literature. The word derives from “civil” meaning polite and orderly. However, the critic agrees with Marx and points out that civilisation is often achieved though capitalism, through “making barbarian countries dependent on civil ones” [xvi] , which is precisely what Heathcliff does, using Literature as his weapon. Heathcliff abuses the illiteracy, portrayed as the incivility of Hareton, by cheating him out of his inheritance. Critic Eagleton notes that by this Heathcliff “links hands with the large capitalist landowner Linton in common historical opposition to yeoman society” [xvii] . Hegemonic with literature, Heathcliff uses his education as an embedded power to prevent Hareton from seeing the natural order. If he was literate, Hareton would of seen that his family name was engraved on the ‘Heights and therefore would have been able to lay some claim to it, but instead he becomes saturated in Heathcliffs ideology of a capitalist household. This proves literacy to be an incredible tool in socio-economic contexts for achieving a high place in society.

Literature and literacy is again, used to discriminate later in the novel when Cathy makes fun of Hareton for not being able to read. Cathy sees herself as higher class because she is literate (despite Hareton being her cousin), and sees herself as “civil” however, similarly to Heathcliff, her uncivil behaviour shines through as she teases Hareton as “so stupid” [xviii] , for his illiteracy. Hareton recognises literacy and the enjoyment of literature as something valuble, which will help him both socially and economically. At the end of Wuthering Heights Lockwood observes Cathy teaching Hareton to read, which critic Eaglton commends “promises equality rather than oppression” [xix] . Here it is evident that an education in literacy, has allowed Hareton to forgive Cathy for how she treated him.

The power and value of literature is also present as Cathy bribes a younger servant Michael with “books and pictures to prepare Minny every evening” [xx] , so she can visit Linton. Williams sees that intellectual life and the arts, although material, can break connections in society, as it has something that is becoming more transcendent over the social class system. It seems evident in the novel that literacy and literature is the key to escape specific social and economic limitations. Through this, literature and educational literacy becomes an economy of its own, of materialistic value.

The portrayal of language in literature sees that language is not a medium but a “constitutive element of material social practice” [xxi] , and a “means of production” [xxii] .

Man made language through the spoken word could be deemed instinctive,

And in theory, as critic Milner explores, semiology, “threatened to dissolve the distinction between minority and mass cultures [xxiii] ” as it is merely signified communication on a basic level. However, I argue that this is an idealist view and therefore untrue. As Williams states “it is the sense of language as an indissoluble element of self creation” [xxiv] that makes language a constitutive form of material production. Therefore as it is constitutionalised, language can be placed into the man-made economic and social strata accordingly. It is reflected both in society and literature, that language is dependent on the cultural system. In Wuthering Heights Joseph’s sometimes incomprehensible dialect-speech portrays him as being of a low class, such as when he says “There’s not another holie to lig down in I’ th’ hahse” an alien codification which causes Isabella to become “vexed” [xxv] and Joseph therefore looked down upon by her. Through this, we could deem literature such as Wuthering Heights as hegemonic, as it uses the literary dialect of Jospeh, and contrasts it against Lockwood and Nelly’s narrative. Thereby portraying the spoken word in it’s ideal form, and as a result determining social divisions outside of the literary world.

In Marxism and Literary Critism,, Eagleton notes, “Books are not just structures of meaning, they are also commodities produced by publishers and sold on the market at a profit” [xxvi] .

The production of written word within itself is not materialist, but literature caters a demand which is what makes it materialist. The writer isn’t the individual who produces capital. The transformation, as the writer’s material becomes mass produced, is what makes it capital, and through this William’s explains the difficulty in separating “the development of literary form, from the highly specific economics of fiction publication” [xxvii] Although there’s no doubt Emily Bronte wrote Wuthering Heights for her own enjoyment, “capital, wage-labour, and production of commodities” [xxviii] through the selling of the novel, meant that she would have had a material gain from it’s publication. Through this, the glorified trans-individuality that signifies the author is smothered by the fact that “they are also workers hired by publishing houses to produce commodities which will sell” [xxix] . An impending team of lower class labourers, described by Marx as “an appendage of the machine” [xxx] of consumerism, are therefore working for the material production that enables a middle class woman to have her creative work published.

Williams consistently links literature to polite and humane learning. Tradition such as the reading of Greek and Latin, something which Cathy does, and Hareton attempts to do in Wuthering Heights, expresses further class division and snobbery at a time when literacy amongst people was still a minority. Even in today’s society, reading classical literature is said to be expressive of a bourgeois or higher class taste, as Latin is often only taught in private schools, and therefore could symbolise a prosperous economic situation. “Thus these forms of the concepts of literature..are, in the perspective of historical social development, forms of a class specialisation” [xxxi] , as William’s notes that specialisation such as this which is economically effected, leads to social limitation. This restriction is emphasised by the rationality, in terms of literature that applied to the working class, as they relied on the passing of informative messages. This contrasts to the Bourgeoisie, such as the Bronte sisters, who were liberated in class and in terms of literature, allowing themselves to enjoy the “imagination” and “creativity” [xxxii] of it.

Literature and vast libraries were also often a symbol of economic prosperity. At the Grange, the Lintons are “provided with a large library [xxxiii] “. However, in the modern world, the social and economic relationships regarding literature are in a state of transformation and revolution. Williams states “The principal changes are the electronic transmission and recording of speech” which are “profoundly changing and extending social and cultural relationships” [xxxiv] . This composes a new era for literature, that is no longer as limited. Electronic literature means that out of copyright publications can be viewed online legally for free, redefining literature both socially and economically. The expansion of forms such as audio-literature widens the availability of literature for those who may suffer from social disabilities such as visual disorders. Through this it is clear that traditional forms, such as printed novels, are vulnerable, and have an uncertain future as they are limited. Of course limitations still exist, as Marxist theory believes that literature isn’t significant in itself, but is “a direct/indirect expression of some preceding and controlling economic content” [xxxv] , which will always be ongoing. Therefore as long as cultural materialism exists, economic and social circumstances will always primarily determine, a person’s level of literacy, and the amount of literature available to them.

Although the limitations of literature are expressed throughout Wuthering Heights it could be said that by the end, these limitations have been expanded, as Hareton learns to read. However, some critics have argued that the novel advocates the restoration of higher class order, as “the old values have triumphed over disruptive unsurper [xxxvi] “, when Hareton, the rightful heir to the heights, is restored to power after Heathcliff’s death. Therefore I argue that the novel does not transcend limitations of literature internally, like many critics believe. As it in fact emphasises an idea that society would be corrupt if the power of education fell into the hands of the lower class, such as an orphan and a possible run-away colonial slave in the form of Heathcliff.

Literture has an aesthetic function, which manifests itself under social context.

With regards to aesthetics within the novel, it is notable that literature and literacy acquires a strong link with beauty in Wuthering Heights. Catherine, Cathy and Edgar are all portrayed as handsome characters, who have a strong affinity with reading. Meanwhile the primal ugliness Heathcliff embodies, is reflected in how he “never reads” and in fact “took it into his head to destroy my books” [xxxvii] as Cathy complains. The aesthetic “selection of characters indicated an assumed or conscious class position” [xxxviii] according to Williams, and other than how well dressed the characters are, another materialistic quality through a love of books seems to link into this. Again this glorifying of literature by Bronte, reflects in reality, as it is something material, which is placed amongst the higher social and economic classes.

Wuthering Heights could be described as “literature of the people”, as it “attempts to relate literature to the social and economic history within it has been produced” [xxxix] . Although Bronte tries to break off traditional ties, and emphasise social and economic limitations that surrounds literature, she conforms to them as order is restored at the end of the novel.

It is true that Cultural materialism has always been embedded in our society, however it only became more widespread with the emergence of industrialisation and the bourgeoisie, as “bourgois society was created by a capitalist mode of production [xl] “. Culture is a process of surplus value, which will always be controlled by social and economic factors, however without it, our society would never develop. Although limitations will always be present, they are becoming less restrictive, as alternative methods of representing literature are becoming evident, which are helping to break down, these social and economic boundaries. However, as long as the mass production of literature will depend on economic values and socially influenced materialism, literature will always depend upon capital.