Language Learning Strategies

This study was conducted in order to investigate the effective language learning strategies employed by Cambodian students -studying English as a second language or as a foreign language. According to research documents from other sources, most well-known Oxford, Chamot, O’Malley, Stern and Rubin are interested in researching “Language Learning Strategies”. In reality, the conceptual framework of my research was selected from the Oxford’s theory customized into direct strategies consisting of memory strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies and indirect strategies including metacognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies. Sample of the research is about 100 students – studying advance level in one English private school -who score of proficiency test from 80 upwards.

All of selected participants first are required to answer the questionnaires about the learning strategies which have done in two languages both English and Khmer. Secondly, the researcher will interview some of the students in order to ensure what they have already answered in the Oxford’s SILL questionnaires (1990) is very accurate and trustful; moreover, the researcher also need to do the interview with 10 teachers who are responsible for holding advance classes in order to ensure that data of those students from different classes are knowledgeable and reliable. All data obtained will be analyzed by using SPSS and then put into EXCEL to find the mean and standard deviation.

After analyzing the data, the researcher can see that the majority of Cambodian outstanding students preferred working with the first choice of compensatory strategies and the second is cognitive strategies. Furthermore, it is anticipated that after the research project students can work well with English language through employing new learning strategies which are effective and reliable.

Key words: Language Learning Strategies, Successful Language Learners, EFL, English as Foreign Language (EFL) Learners

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

English has been considered as the predominant and common global language for people living in developing countries in the beginning of twenty-first century because it is very essential tool -which is for tracking the universal information and for global communication -that can help them find a well-paid job in locally and internationally standardized company or enterprise. In Cambodia, as elsewhere in the globalized world, English has gained a crucial role in different areas of life over the last decades. This is evident by the increasing number of English schools from children to adults in Cambodia. At the moment, the market for learning and teaching English in Cambodia is so vast. In fact, over the past decades, McLaren (2000) illustrated that Cambodian people have inspired themselves to study English because learning English is very worthy for them to have a better lifestyle (as cited in Koji Igawa, 2008). As a result, English is currently popular language used for international business and education in Cambodia (Igawa, 2008). Igawa. K (2010) English now is most interesting and popular language in Cambodia and it is also regarded as a bridge to receive a high-paid work and to continue scholarship abroad. In addition, futurists Naisbitt and Aburdence (1990) mentioned the prospects of English in glowing color:

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The dramatic increase of development of a single global lifestyle is because of the proliferation of English language and culture transmission. It is now about 1 billion and is probably to exceed to 1.5 billion English speakers in the world by 2000. Language has been taught around the world; English is not replacing the original language but it is supplementing the others (as cited in Koji Igawa).

Similarly, English is now important communication means in every area of life, including science, business, aviation, entertainment, TV, internet and diplomacy in the world. Most kinds of published documents or materials written into English language are available in the world. Montgogomery (2004), 80 to 90 percent of documents, journal or (Graddol, 1999) information stored in the internet is written or dominated by English language (as cited in Aslan & Oktay, 2009). In the same time, Crystal (2003) mentioned that native English speakers are about 400 million when non-native English speakers -who used English as Second Language (ESL) and Foreign Language (EFL) – are more than 430 million and latter is around 730 million. Hence, the surprising figure of English language speakers peak up to one and half billion worldwide (as cited in Aslan.O, 2009).

According to what researcher mentioned above, it is extremely clear that most parts of the world are studying English language in order to have a better living standard. However, up until now, learning English is tough for not just Cambodian people but also other non-native English speakers whose language has much difference from English. Apart from this, Cambodia is; for example, not an English speaking country; therefore, English communicative competence is hard to acquire. In this case, language learning strategies can greatly assist language learners in Cambodia to learn English in more effective and efficient ways. According to Cohen (2005) mentioned that Language Learning Strategies (LLS) are very essential for “language learning and teaching” for two main reasons: “(a) researcher can identify the metacognitive, cognitive, social and affective process involved in language learning by investigating the strategy use of second language learners, (b) less successful language learners can be assisted to be better language learners through effective strategy instruction. The second reason is more necessary for classroom pedagogy and some researchers (O’Malley & Chamlot, 1990; Ozeki, 2002; Ikeda & Takeuchi, 2003) have claimed language learners can improve their language performance by using instructed learning strategy” (as cited in Kusumi, 2007).

1.2 Problem Statement

Having been working as an EFL teacher for ages in public institute English is likely to use as support language, researcher has observed that the majority of Cambodian students studying English there are facing the obstacles of learning English because they are living in non-native English speaking country whose language is Khmer; therefore, they don’t have much chance sharpening and strengthening their English. Although the students change every year, their learning attitude remains the same. Most of them do not have successful educational history and numbers of them are unaware of language learning strategies according to what the researcher’s observation. Furthermore, Cambodian English learners and teachers have shortage of effective language learning and teaching strategies.

1.3 Aim and Objective of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effective language learning strategies used by the learners, with specific emphasize on the great numbers of strategies and the domain differences and to indicate the link between strategy use and success level. What’s more, researcher is willing to find out how well the learning strategies helped Cambodian students learn English. According to Brown (1987) illustrates the interaction of “what is learning and what is teaching”. After researching the effective language learning strategies, the students can employ these learning strategies to master their learning the language. Also, academic director can conduct a workshop on the subject matter of how to learn the language fruitfully and successfully; moreover, teachers can clearly understand the approaches to build up students’ ability and needs.

1.4 Research Question

What are the language learning strategies that contribute to successful EFL learners?

1.5 Rationale of the Study

Cambodia is now moving towards the “process of globalization” along with membership of ASEAN community (Igawa, 2008). Therefore, the findings on language learning strategies towards successful EFL learners will be beneficial for learners to reinforce their learning strategies or styles more and more effective and for educators to create more effective teaching methodology in order to fulfill students’ needs. Furthermore, working as a successful, standard and professional educator, it is very essential to transparently and deeply understand the ways to educate the students or children both mental awareness and academic abilities. In addition, school principal or director will be able to update the study program to match the job market. Consequently, researcher sincerely hopes that this study would assist all school principal or manager, educators and EFL learners to apply in teaching or studying respectively.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The Definition of Language Learning Strategies (LLS)

Educators and learners have now paid much attention on not only ‘what to learn’ but also ‘how to learn’. In order to completely achieve language learning, the focus is placed on the development of the learning strategies generally -the educators ought to be aware the varieties of techniques in transferring their English knowledge to learners. For instance, with good language learning strategies, teachers can instruct the students well enough. However, the first step to realization of this approach is to know what learning strategies are about.

Speaking about language learning strategies, most of researchers mainly highlight on how to deal with language learning strategies more easily and more effectively and introduce useful help for language learners. Therefore, language learning strategies are broadly defined by many researchers of second and foreign language learning depending on the subject areas including pedagogy, psychology, linguistic.

According to the linguist, LLS is generally defined as ways the learners to acquire and to use English language effectively and correctly (Richards & Schmidt, 2002). Moreover, Tsan. (2008), LLS refers to action or technique the language students use in order develop their language learning progress; for example, questions during teaching and feedbacks after reading.

Rubin (1975) defined “successful language learners” by just looking at their strategies and their learning performance. Also, Parrot defined a learning strategy as “a measure that the learner actively employs to assist or advance learning” (1993: 57).

Aslan. O (as cited in Rigny, 1985 & Oxford, 1990) defined that “language learning strategies” were as “operations employed by learner to aid the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information”. Scarcella & Oxford (1992, p.63) defined that learning strategies are “steps, behaviors, specific actions or techniques” such as making conversation, solving tough problem in language learning. Learning strategies or learner strategies are steps adopted by learners to achieve their learning and develop their language acquisition (Chamot & O’Malley, 1996; Nunan, 1996; Oxford, 1996; Lessard-Clouston, 1997).

In the meantime, Cohen (2007) agreed with Oxford’s ideas defined that the purpose of language learning strategies is to develop learning, to work with specific tasks, to cope with specific problems, to make learning easier, faster, and more enjoyable and to compensate for a deficit in learning.

English as Foreign Language (EFL): is defined as “English language learning occurs in a nonnative English environment where the native language is spoken” (Tanveer. M &Yang. M, 2010)

Even though language learning strategies are not simply defined, they all depend on to one common thing which helps learners make their language learning easier and acquire language more effectively and successfully.

2.2. Importance of language learning strategies

The language learning strategies are special ways to help people to realize, to learn, and to memorize new knowledge. As an old Chinese saying goes “Teaching a man how to fish is better than giving him a fish.” Teachers cannot always teach him by his side throughout his life, so these strategies play an important role in developing learner autonomy. Learners can make the best use of these strategies to establish the ability of self-directed learning. If people use these strategies efficiently, they can learn by themselves and self-examine their own progress. Gradually, they can set up their self-confidence. Therefore, having proper learning strategies can improve learners and enhance their abilities of language.

2.3 Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies

According to the early studies on language learning strategies, the professional researchers involved in language learning have had different concepts of classification of learning strategies. The researchers (Cohen, 2002; Ellis, 1997; O’Malley, 1985) indicate similar learning strategies categorized into metacognitive, cognitive, social and communication. Obviously, there are three main types of learning strategies consisting of “metacognitive, cognitive and social strategies” (Ghani as cited in O’Malley and Chamot, 1990). Another researcher stated that three types of language learning strategies have been classified such as; “learning strategies, communication strategies and social strategies” (Zare as cited in Rubin, 1987). Referring to Oxford’s classification, the professional and expertize researcher has divided the language learning strategies into two main categories; direct strategies and indirect strategies which are subdivided into total of six groups (Zare as cited in Oxford, 1990). Whereas, researcher (Stern, 1992) stated that there have been five types of language learning strategies such as; (1) management and planning strategies (2) cognitive strategies (3) communicative -experiential strategies (4) interpersonal strategies (5) affective strategies.

In researcher’s opinion, researcher would prefer to follow the Oxford’s taxonomy rather than the others’ views because its taxonomy clearly stated the procedures and steps of language learning strategies divided into two major parts named direct strategies and indirect strategies. Remarkably, these two strategies are not apart from each other but they are relatively interconnected. Most interestingly, a few main subdivisions for each strategy are also closely interrelated and help one another.

2.4 Conceptual framework of LLS

According Oxford (1990), LLS is categorized into two major groups such as; direct strategies and indirect strategies. The first one was the activities which directly effect on the learning process including “memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies that help learners achieve the target language in communication gaps. The latter is the indirect activities which have influence on leaning process. It consists of “metacognitive, affective and social strategies”. The conceptual framework that informed this study will use this classification so as to explore language learning strategies for successful EFL learners.

Memory

Strategies

Cognitive Strategies

Compensation Strategies

Social Strategies

Affective Strategies

Metacognitive Strategies

Figure 2.1 Interrelationships between Direct and Indirect Strategies and Among the Six Strategy Groups (Oxford, 1990)

2.4.1 Direct strategies

The direct strategies play very important role because they help learners store and recover the information easily and produce the language. According to Oxford (1990), direct strategies are the learning strategies involved in target language -the metal processing of the language; for example, remembering the information and practicing the target language while the other three subdivisions of direct strategies activate this process normally. In reality, Oxford (1990) classified direct strategies into three categories such as; memory strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies. These categories are stated as:

“Memory strategies, such as grouping or using imagery, have a highly specific function: helping students store and retrieve new information. Cognitive strategies, such as summarizing or reasoning deductively, enable learners to understand and produce new language by many different means. Compensation strategies, like guessing or using synonyms, allow learners to use the language despite their often large gaps in knowledge”(Oxford, 1990; p.37).

2.4.1.1 Memory strategies

Memory strategies are defined as the learning strategies used for storing, entering and retrieving the information. Memory strategies help learners to connect one L2 concept to another but it is not sophisticated. Additionally, memory strategies help learners learn and organize things in order; however, with other strategies, language learners create learning and retrieving through “sounds, images, the combination of sounds and images, body movement, mechanical means or a location” (Aslan as cited in Oxford, 1990). Stevick (1982), McCathy (1990), Holden (1999), and Cohen (2002) mentioned the similar method to remember the vocabulary and structures easily for fresh language learners. “Memory strategies can contribute powerfully to language learning” (Aslan, 2009).

Oxford (1990) distinguishes memory strategies into another set of four: creating mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing well and employing action. Here is the diagram of the memory strategies.

Memory Strategies

Creating Mental Linkages

Grouping

Associating/Elaborating

Placing new words into a context

Appling all images and sounds

Using imagery

Semantic mapping

Using keywords

Representing sounds in Memory

Reviewing well

Structured reviewing

Employing action

Using physical response or sensation

Using mechanical techniques

Figure: 2.2: Diagram of the memory strategies (Oxord, 1990, p.18)

2.4.1.2 Cognitive strategies

Cognitive strategies are very essential strategies to enhance students’ ability in critical thinking and enable the learners to manipulate or change the target language because of the above-mentioned reasons, cognitive strategies are very useful for learning a new language (Aslan, 2009). Cognitive strategies refer to the strategies which learners employ to think critically, analyzing the information professionally, note-taking and summarizing and so on (Oxford. L. R, 1990). Chamot (1989) stated that learners acquire the target language and complete the tasks directly by themselves. According to the previous studies, the cognitive strategies are prominently connected with L2 proficiency (Kato, 1996; Oxford & Ehrman, 1995; Oxford, Judd, and Giesen, 1998; and Park, 1994). Moreover, cognitive strategies popularize for language learners due to one study conducted by Oxford (1989, 1990).

Oxford (1990) illustrated that cognitive strategies have four sets such as; “practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning and creating structure for input and output. Here is the cluster of cognitive strategies.

Memory Strategies

Practicing

Repeating

Formally practicing with sounds & writing system

Recognizing and using formula and patterns

Recombining

Practicing naturalistically

Receiving and sending messages

Getting the idea quickly

Using resources for receiving and sending messages

Analyzing and reasoning

Reasoning deductively

Analyzing expressions

Analyzing contrastively (across languages)

Translating

Transferring

Creating structure for input and output

Taking notes

Summarizing

Highlighting

Figure: 2.3: Diagram of the memory strategies (Oxford, 1990, p.18-19)

2.4.1.3 Compensation strategies

Compensatory refers to the reduction of bad effects of something according Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Oxford (1990, p.47) compensatory strategies are strategies that learners use new language for either comprehension or production despite limitations in information; moreover, these strategies are willing to make up for an insufficient repertoire of grammar and, especially, of vocabulary. Due to applied linguistic dictionary (2002) defined the compensatory strategies as strategies which help learners -children who lack language experience enable to comprehend the missing the information. For example, learners cannot read the text or understand the text easily and efficiently because of a few difficult vocabularies. Nijmegen & Kasper (1983) stated that compensatory strategies refer to strategies which language learners use so as to overcome the intended meaning during verbal communication.

As above mention, these strategies assist learners to produce spoken and written expressions in the target language even though they have inadequate knowledge. Aslan. O (2009) mentioned that “compensatory strategies for production serve as helper in carrying on employing language. Apart from these, some of these strategies help learners become more fluent in their prior knowledge”.

Oxford classified compensatory strategies in ten sub-strategies which are under the two main strategies. Ten of these strategies are guessing by linguistic clues, guessing by other clues, switching to the mother tongue, getting help, using mime or gesture, avoiding communication partially or totally, selecting the topic, adjusting or approximating the message, coining words, and using circumlocution or synonym. Below is the diagram of compensatory strategies taken from Oxford’s theory.

Compensatory Strategies

Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing

Switching to the mother tongue

Getting help

Using mime or gesture

Avoiding communication partially or totally

Selecting the topics

Adjusting or approximating the message

Coining words

Using a circumlocution or synonym

Guessing intelligently

Using linguistic clues

Using other clues

Figure: 2.4: Diagram of the compensatory strategies (Oxford, 1990, p.18-19)

2.4.2 Indirect strategies

According to Oxford (1990), indirect strategies can be classified as meta-cognitive, affective, and social strategies. She added that all of the strategies are indirect, since they help the language learning without directly connected with the target language. Also, she stated as the following:

“Metacognitive strategies enable language learners to manage their own cognition- that is, to coordinate the learning process by using functions such as centering, arranging, planning the organization either written and spoken discourse, and evaluating the comprehension of receptive language and language production. Affective strategies help to regulate emotions, motivations, and attitude. Social strategies help students learn through interaction with others using either interpersonal or intrapersonal communication” (p.135).

Similarly, Kozmonová (2008) agreed with Oxford’s that indirect strategies are not the same as direct strategies, for they are not directly related to the “target language”. Indirect strategies connected with language learning management such as; “planning and organizing time for learning, evaluating learners’ progress, paying attention to emotions, learning with other people, and others”.

More significantly, Oxford (1990) and Filiz (2005) claimed that direct strategies and indirect strategies are interconnected and are beneficial in all language learning circumstances and helping language learners to improve and strengthen all four macro skills such as listening, reading, speaking, and writing.

2.4.2.1 Metacognitive strategies

Tsan (2008) indicated that meta-cognitive strategies referred to overall learning process management. In addition, Al-Buainain (2010) showed that metacognitive strategies are involved in one’s language learning by planning, organizing, monitoring and evaluating and they help learners to “gain control over their emotions and motivations related to language learning through self-monitoring”. According to Oxford’s clarification (1990), metacognitive strategies are absolutely vital methods which the successful language learners need to employ to integrate the process of language learning. For instance, students who are unfamiliar with vocabulary and confusing the grammar rules and so on so forth need these strategies.

Cohen (2002, p.3) accurately describes metacognitive strategies as those which “[…] deal with pre-assessment and pre-planning, on-line planning and evaluation, and post-evaluation of language learning activities and of language use events”. Researcher, Ellis (1997, p.77) asserted that “metacognitive strategies are those involved in planning, monitoring and evaluating learning. Additionally, O’ Malley and Chamot mentioned that these strategies involve in planning and thinking about learning, such as planning one’s learning, monitoring one’s own speech or writing, and evaluating how successful a particular strategy is (1990, p.44).

According to what above mention, research finding of metacognitive strategies has common strategies which refer to learners’ planning, organizing, and evaluating of their learning. Hence, students can regain their focus by using metacognitive strategies and utilize the strategies for making use of other necessary learning strategies for a successful outcome.

Metacognitive strategies consist of eleven sub divisions such as: centering your learning, arranging and planning your learning and evaluating your learning (Oxford, 1990). Here is the diagram of meta-cognitive strategies.

Metacognitive Strategies

Centering your learning

Overviewing & linking with already known material

Paying attention

Delaying speech production to focus on listening

Arranging and planning your learning

Finding out about language learning

Organizing

Setting goals and objectives

Identifying the purpose of a language task

Planning for language task

Seeking practice opportunities

Evaluating your learning

Self-monitoring

Self-evaluating

Figure: 2.5: Diagram of the metacognitive strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 20)

2.4.2.2 Affective strategies

“Affective” refers to the emotions, attitudes, motivations and values by Oxford (1990 & Cohen, 2002, p.3). Tsan (2008) defined affective strategy as procedure that identified one’s mood and anxiety level. Apparently, in language learning process, good language learners employ different types of affective strategies. Sometimes, it can be frustrating to learn another language. It can arouse feeling of unfamiliarity and confusion. In some other cases, learners might not have a positive perspective towards native speakers. On the other hand, good language learners are relatively aware of these emotions, and they try to build positive feelings towards the foreign language and its speakers as well as the learning activities. Positive feelings will result in better performance in language learning. To a great deal, training can be of assistance to the students to face these controversial feelings and to overcome them by drawing attention to the possible frustrations or mentioning them as they come up (Chamot, 1992). As other famous researchers coping with affective strategies, Ellis and Sinclair (1989) put affective strategies into metacognitive ones, whereas Ellis (1997) includes them in social ones.

Therefore, while learning a new language, learners can gain control over factors which are relevant with emotions, attitudes, emotions and values through the use of affective strategies.

According to Oxford (1990), affective strategies cover a few sub strategies including “lowing your anxiety, encouraging yourself and taking your emotional temperature. Here is the diagram of affective strategies.

Affective Strategies

Lowering your anxiety

Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing and meditation

Using music

Using laughter

Encouraging yourself

Making positive statements

Taking risks wisely

Rewarding yourself

Taking your emotional temperature

Listening to your body

Using a checklist

Writing a language learning diary

Discussing your feelings with someone else

Figure: 2.6: Diagram of the affective strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 20)

2.4.2.3 Social strategies

Social strategies are indirect strategies which refer to communication held with other learners or native speakers. Social strategies are the activities in which the language learners can practice their existing knowledge of language through interaction (Zare as cited in Rubin, 1987). Rubin (1975) finalized that successful language learners are eagerly inspired to have a strong drive to communicate and to learn from communication […]. In fact, if you contact others, then you are employing these strategies. Our relationship between people is important, and the relationship can help us to do something that we can’t finish it by ourselves.

Therefore, social strategies support the learners to work with others and understand the culture as well as the language, as Aslan (as cited in Oxford, 1990) states “language is a form of social behavior.” Finally, social strategies play very crucial role in communicative language either second or foreign learners.

Six skills listed under three sets of social strategies are “asking questions, cooperating with others and empathizing with others owing to Oxford (1990). Here is the diagram of the social strategies.

Social Strategies

Asking questions

Asking for clarification or verification

Asking for correction

Cooperating with Others

Cooperating with peers

Cooperating with proficient users of the new language

C. Empathizing with others

Developing cultural understanding

Becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings

Figure: 2.7: Diagram of the social strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 21)

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This study mainly focuses on the language learning strategies used by Cambodian students. Survey questionnaire and an interview will be used to find out about the effective strategies employed in learning English as a second language (ESL) or foreign language (EFL). In fact, the participants of the study are students and home class teachers studying and teaching in one English private school in Takhmau town, Kandal province. The researcher will choose this English school to conduct the research because it is close to the researcher’s accommodation; therefore, it is convenient to travel and get the rich information. The researcher will conduct a research at one private school -same programs for full-time and part-time -which has offered different levels of English education including beginner (level 1-3), elementary (level 4-6), pre-intermediate (level 7-9), upper-intermediate (level 10-12) and advance (level 13-15). According to school information collected from school principal, this school has 120 from beginner class; 250 from both full-ti