You are here: UK Essays » Essays » Psychology » Marital Status

Free Essays - Psychology Essays

The Influence of Marital Status and Self-Confidence on Quality of Mother-Child Relationship

Abstract

The influence of self-confidence and marital status on the quality of mother-child relationships was investigated. Participants responded to the 1990-1992 National Comorbidity Survey, a large-scale survey of mental health. Chi-square analyses indicated that married mothers tended to have better mother-child relationship than single mothers. Mother-child relationships did not differ qualitatively between self-confident women and women that showed no self-confidence. The findings are congruent with prior research findings that mothers’ self-confidence influences the quality of the mother-child relationship.

The Influence of Marital Status and Self-Confidence on Quality of Mother-Child Relationship

Parenting is a central adult role and constitutes one of the most demanding and challenging tasks of adulthood (Barnard & Martell, 1995). Improper parenting can influence the relationship between a child and parent. Caretaking tasks, for instance, such as feeding, sleeping and changing diapers affect motherhood experiences (Barnard & Martell, 1995). Previous research indicated that women who have a positive sense of maternal competency in early parenthood feel more comfortable with performing infant caretaking skills (Copeland & Harbaugh, 2004). The mother’s self-confidence is influenced by the infant’s responsiveness to caretaking. Knowing how to sooth a baby’s crying, for example, can facilitate a mother’s maternal competency and increase self-confidence. Caretaking is one of many challenging tasks, but becoming a mother often leads to women experiencing doubts about maternal competency as well as problems with self-confidence.

Becoming a mother can cause anxiety because of the dramatic change in roles. The responsibilities of a new mother are many and the change is overwhelming. Anxiety is generally greater for first-time mothers (Copeland & Harbaugh, 2004). A study on first-time mothers found an important link between social support and confidence in infant care (Warren, 2005). One-hundred and thirty-five first-time mothers answered a 28 item questionnaire including information such as demographic details, social support network, experiences of social support, and perceived level of confidence on caring for the infant. Among first-time mothers, 44% of respondents were highly confident, 49% moderate confidence and only 7% low confidence. The relationship between social support and confidence in infant care was also indicated. Support from either a family member, friend or spouse influenced the mother’s self-confidence to care for the infant properly. Previous research also indicated that mothers’, single or married, lack of self-confidence influences the relationship with the child. Evidence shows that raising children as a single parent is negatively associated with parents’ relationship with the child (Cunningham & Knoester, 2007). One study investigated the differences in parenting stress between married and single first-time mothers after birth (Cunningham & Knoester, 2007). Eighty first-time mothers answered a 36 item questionnaire including demographic details. Among first-time mothers, single mothers’ had higher levels of parenting stress than married mothers. Single mothers experience some degree of distress in the parent role and may perceive that the infants are more difficult to care for because of marital status. Single mothers also reported that an increase of parenting stress in the parent role is experienced because of less social support. (Cunningham & Knoester, 2007).

Another study investigated the differences in maternal competence between married and single mothers in early parenthood (Copeland & Harbaugh, 2004). Participants were 58 married and 22 single mothers with a healthy full-term infant. The sample of single mothers was predominantly low income, young, ethnically diverse and less educated than the married mothers. Eligible mothers completed a self-report instrument called the Parenting Sense of Competence (PSOC; Gibaud-Wallston, 1977) which assessed the parental perception of skill and knowledge. The instrument also measured valuing and comfort of parent role. Mothers completed the instrument six weeks after birth of the child. Single mothers scored lower on the PSOC compared to married mothers. Furthermore, on the Valuing/Comfort subscale, single mothers scored lower indicating married mothers were more comfortable with the parent role. The Skill/Knowledge subscale concluded that no overall significant difference was found because both single and married mothers perceived that the skills and knowledge required to care for the child was already attained which in turn influenced the PSOC total score (Copeland & Harbaugh, 2004). Single mothers’ skills and knowledge in caretaking of the child may not be all that different from married mothers as assumed by nurses. Like the Valuing/Comfort and Skill/Knowledge subscales, other parenting behaviors can influence the satisfaction the mothers have with the mother-child relationship.

Satisfaction with the relationship between mother and child is often associated with parenting behavior (Tenzer, Murray, Vaughan, & Sacco, 2006). Positive parenting behaviors include communication and emotional attachment to the child. Negative parenting behaviors include lack of mother-child interaction and lack of emotional support from mother to child. Behaviors whether positive or negative, influence risk of social or psychological problems for both the mother and child. One study on maternal symptoms, relationship satisfaction and verbal behavior involved mothers with children 6-12 years old. Mothers Completed the Child Trait Rating Scale (CTRS; Sacco, Johnson & Tenzer, 1993), Parent Attribution Rating Questionnaire (PAQ; Finch & Bradbury, 1992), Parenting Affect Rating Scale (PARS; Tenzer, et al., 2006), Parent-Child Relationship Satisfaction Scale (PCRS; Norton, 1983), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, Steer, & Garbin, 1988), and Conners Rating Scale Hyperactivity Index (Conners, 1985). Maternal depression was associated with lower relationship satisfaction, more negative trait perceptions of the child, and more negative affective reactions to the child (Tenzer, et al., 2006). The association between maternal depression and relationship satisfaction was mediated by trait perceptions, meaning that mothers exhibited lower relationship satisfaction because of maternal depression. Results from the study led researchers to posit a link between maternal depression and relationship satisfaction. Poor maternal relationship satisfaction could cause maternal depression leading to social or psychological problems on behalf of the child (Tenzer, et al., 2006). Maternal depression can affect parenting behavior negatively by lacking mother-child interaction and lack of emotional support from mother to child.

A study on the effect of denial of mother-child interaction on maternal self-confidence found that the separation experience substantially altered the self-confidence of mothers (Seashore, Leifer, & Barnett, 1973). Mothers with infants who participated were placed in two groups. The first was comprised of mothers that were allowed contact with the infant while the mothers in the second group were not allowed contact with the child, with the exception of nursing. Mothers responded to a questionnaire comparing themselves to five other possible caretakers. After completing the questionnaire mothers were rated. Finding concluded that after four questionnaires and ratings, mothers that had been separated from the child had low self-confidence than mothers that were allowed contact (Seashore, et al., 1973). If separation persists between mother and child during infancy the relationship between mother and child could be negatively influenced.

One theory suggests, adults who remember the relationships with parents during infancy as a rejected or neglected child are more likely to have internalized experiences that influence the parental behavior of the adult. The parental behavior then results in negative expectations and increases feelings of sadness (Gotlib & Hammen, 1992). Thus, single or married mothers that have a family history of negligence or rejection from the parents are at higher risk to develop low self-confidence that may ultimately lead to depression. A poor mother-child relationship is also associated with negative childhood experiences with the parents. Poor mother-child relationships may start a cycle of poor parenting passed on from one generation to the next.

Another factor related to positive or negative mother-child relationships is the emotional support received either from friends, family or spouse. Mothers receiving no emotional support for parenting were more likely to have a poor mental attitude or poor self-confidence than mothers with emotional support (Mistry, Stevens, Sareen, De Vagoli, & Halfon, 2007). Participants consisted of mothers primarily responsible for children’s health care. Participants had children age 4 to 35 months. Maternal mental health was assessed by asking how often during the past month the respondent had been (1) very nervous, (2) calm and peaceful, (3) down-hearted and blue, (4) so down in the dumps that nothing could cheer them up and (5) happy. Support for parenting was assessed by asking whether there was someone the parent could (1) Turn to for day-to-day emotional help with parenting (2) count on to watch your child if you need a break (Mistry, et al., 2007). Mothers who were younger, employed, or single were more likely to be in poor mental health, as were moms living in lower income households. Mothers with 2 children were more likely to be in poor mental health than those with 1 or with 3 or more children. Also, mothers with no emotional support for parenting were more likely to be in poor mental health than those who had support. Together findings show that parenting stressors related to social and financial factors are commonly reported by mothers with young children (Mistry, et al., 2007). Thus, greater stressors may cause mothers to be at higher risk for low self confidence because of lack of emotional support and other stressors such as social and financial factors (Mistry, et al., 2007).

Self-confidence of a mother, whether married or single, is very important. Self-confidence is a belief in one’s self and abilities, a mental attitude of trusting or relying on one’s self (Uncommon Knowledge, 2005). Self-confidence is influenced by lack of emotional support and is major part of parenting. In the present study the two following hypothesis will be investigated: single mothers with no self-confidence will have a poor mother-child relationship quality than mothers with self-confidence; single mothers will have a poor mother-child relationship quality than married mothers.

Method

Female respondents to the National Comorbidity Survey (NCS; Kessler, 1992) served as the study sample. The NCS is a large-scale survey of mental health. The survey is used to administer a structured psychiatric interview to a nationally representative sample. All participants are given a brief explanation of the study by the interviewer and assured that the interview is completely confidential and voluntary. If participants do not wish to answer then the interviewer will move on to the next question. Since the survey is fairly lengthy, the interview is divided into two parts in order to prevent participant fatigue.

All female participants who provided information regarding marital status, who had at least one child under the age of six, and who provided a rating of self-confidence and quality of mother-child relationship were included in the analysis. The final sample was comprised of 349 women, 15 to 68 years of age and whose race was White, Black, American Indian, Asian, or other. Female respondents’ total household income ranged from no income to 100,000 and over.

Marital Status was determined by asking if the respondent was currently married, separated, divorced, widowed or never married. The response was recoded to indicate married or not married condensing separated, divorced, widowed or never married into not married. Self-Confidence was determined by asking if the respondent has had so little self-esteem that they would not try to have their say about anything in a period of two weeks or longer. The response was recorded as either yes or no. Quality of Mother-Child Relationship was determined by asking if the respondent had an excellent, good, fair, or poor relationship with the child. The response was recoded to indicate poor (fair and poor), good, or excellent. Responses to ‘none’ were omitted from analyses.

Results

A chi-square test-of-independence examined the relationship between marital status (single or married) and quality of the mother-child relationship (poor, good, or excellent). A significant relationship was found, x² (N = 3) = 10.99, p < .05. A total of 64.3% of married respondents reported an excellent mother-child relationship and only 35.7% of single respondents reported having an excellent quality of mother-child relationship. Results indicated that married mothers reported having better relationships with the child than single mothers. A total of 81.8% of single mothers reported having a poor relationship quality with the child. Single mothers reported having a poorer relationship with the child more so than married mothers.

Another chi-square test-of-independence examined self-confidence of the mother and the quality of mother-child relationship. The test showed no significant relation, x² (N = 2) = 2.96, p > .05. Results indicate that whether mothers have self-confidence or not does not affect the quality of relationship with the child.

Discussion

The study tested the hypothesis that mothers with no self-confidence will have a poor mother-child relationship quality than mothers with self-confidence. Previous research had indicated that mothers’ self-confidence influenced the quality of the mother-child relationship which is more pronounced in those that have no self-confidence (Crockenberg, 2003). Often a mother’s self-confidence can vary depending on the response from the child. The response from the child is based on the caretaking skills of the mother (Copeland & Harbaugh, 2004). Caring for a child can range from feeding to changing diapers. Knowing how to care for a child properly can ease the transition into motherhood and increase the mother’s self-confidence and maternal competence. Becoming a first-time mother can be more challenging and cause more anxiety. Though many challenges can arise from becoming a mother parenting behaviors can also have a negative affect on the relationship between mother and child (Tenzer, et al., 2006). Lack of mother-child interaction has shown that the mother-child relationship was negatively affected (Tenzer, et al., 2006). Mothers’ had a poor relationship quality with the child because of negative parenting behaviors which resulted from maternal depression. Another factor related to positive or negative mother-child relationships is emotional support received either from friends, family, or spouse. One study found that social support from a family member, friend or spouse influenced the mother’s self confidence to care for the infant properly (Warren, 2005). Mothers with no emotional support for parenting were more likely to be in poor mental health than those who had support (Mistry, et al., 2007). The greater the stressor then the higher the risk for low self-confidence because of lack of emotional support. Results showed that there is no significant relation, x² (N = 2) = 2.96, p > .05. Results indicated that whether mothers have self-confidence or not does not affect the quality of relationship with the child. Although a relationship was not found between self-confidence and mother-child relationship quality, other factors could influence a mother’s self-confidence. These factors include financial and social support. (Mistry, Stevens, Sareen, De Vagoli, & Halfon, 2007). Female respondents family household income had no valid cases meaning that respondents refused to respond.

The other hypothesis was that single mothers will have a poor mother-child relationship quality than married mothers. Previous research has shown that raising children as a single parent is negatively associated with parents’ relationship with the child (Cunningham & Knoester, 2007). Single mothers more than married mothers experience a negative relationship with the child because of parenting stress due to exposure to stressors unique to the mother’s environment (Copeland & Harbaugh, 2005). Results presented showed that marital status had a significant relationship with the quality of mother-child relationship. Congruent with previous research, a large percentage of married mothers’ reported having an excellent mother-child relationship where as only a small percent of single mothers reported having an excellent mother-child relationship. The majority of single women reported having a poor relationship with the child. The result could mean that because of marital status a single mother can experience difficulty in caring for the child resulting in a poor mother-child relationship whether that experience is less social or financial support (Copeland & Harbaugh, 2005).

As limitations, the mothers’ age and the age of the child could have influenced the results. The mothers’ age ranged from 15 to 68 years of age which can mean that the child may be adoptive. The race of the respondent was also not valid because the respondent refused to respond. To account for such limitation, it is important that future replication studies assess and take into account if the child is biologically the mothers child and not adoptive. Further research on marital status, self-confidence, and quality of mother-child relationship is needed in order to provide educational and supportive interventions to reduce parenting stress in this vulnerable population of single parents. Compared to married women, single women expressed that marital status affects the relationship with the child negatively. Education should be focused on strategies that promote the single mother’s knowledge of infant care and that single mothers are not alone. By encouraging the mother to identify and used social networks and resources before or during pregnancy then chances of poor quality of mother-child relationships can be reduced.

References

• Barnard, K. E., & Martell, L. K. (1995). Mothering. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting, Vol. 3: Status and social conditions of parenting (pp. 3-26). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Colwell, M. J. & Hart, S. (2007). Emotion framing: Does it relate to children’s emotion knowledge and social behavior? [Electronic Version] Early Child Development and Care, 176, 591-603.
• Copeland, D. & Harbaugh, B. L. (2005). Differences in parenting stress between married and single first time mothers at six to eight weeks after birth. [Electronic Version] Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 28, 139-152.
• Copeland, D. & Harbaugh, B. L. (2004). Transition of maternal competency of married and single mothers in early parenthood. [Electronic Version] The Journal of Prenatal Education, 13, 3-9.
• Crockenberg, S. C. & Leerkes, E. M. (2003). Parental acceptance, postpartum depression, and maternal sensitivity: Mediating and moderating processes. [Electronic Version] Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 80-93.
• Cunningham, A. M. & Knoester, C. (2007). Marital status, gender, and parents’ psychological well-being. [Electronic Version] Sociological Inquiry, 77, 264-287.
• Gotlib, I. H., & Hammen, C. (1992). Psychological aspects of depression: Toward cognitive and interpersonal integration (pp. 245-267). London: Wiley.
• Halley, F. (2007). Young adults’ relationship with parents and siblings: The role of marital status, conflict and post-divorce. [Electronic Version] Journal of Divorce & Marriage, 46, 105-124.
• Kessler, R. C., National Comorbidity Survey (2002). [Data File]. Conducted by University of Michigan, Survey Research Center.
• Mistry, R., Stevens, G. D., Sareen, H., De Vogli, R., & Halfon, N. (2007). Parenting-related stressors and self-reported mental health of mothers with young children. [Electronic Version] American Journal of Public Health, 97, 1261-1268.
• Mize, J. & Pettit, G. S. (1997). Mothers’ social coaching, mother-child relationship style, and children’s peer competence: Is the medium the message? [Electronic Version] Child Development, 68, 312-332.
• Seashore, M. J., Leifer, A. D., Barnett, C. R., & Leiderman, P. H. (1973). The effects of denial of early mother-infant interaction on maternal self-confidence. [Electronic Version] Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26, 369-378.
• Tenzer, S. A., Murray, D. W., Vaughn, C. A., Sacco, W. P. (2006). Maternal depressive symptoms, relationship satisfaction, and verbal behavior: A social-cognitive analysis. [Electronic Version] Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 23, 131-149.
• Uncommon Knowledge. (2005). Definition: Self-confidence. http://www.uncommonforum.com/glossary/self-confidence.html

All of the essays in this section were written by students and then submitted to us to publish and help others. Thanks to all of the students who have submitted their essays to us. You should not hand in our essays as your own. We do not condone plagiarism! If you need custom essays on your exact essay questions, then have a look at our essay writing service.

Sign up and be the first to receive our latest offers: