Tourism Marketing Consumer
‘Tourism Industry Marketing Based On Consumer Behaviour Research'
Introduction
Human behaviour is inconsistent by nature. Due to the social and physical environment, humans tend to act or behave in a certain manner depending on the setting. Consumption behaviour, likewise, reflects human behaviour, and differentiates from different environment and social situation. According to Mitchell (1993), individual behaviour is the result of the "individual's perceptions of the situation in which the attitude object is encountered" (p.119). Hence, individual behaviour occurs according to the consumers' perception of the stimuli, whether it be product or service, under certain circumstances. Thus, consumer behaviour can be defined as information-processing behaviour of individuals in their problem-solving goals. These goals are for consumption of physical products, service experiences or cognition of special interests, according to Huffman, Ratneshwar and Mick (2000). Thus, consumers are goal-directed in their behaviour which makes them complex to understand. Consequently, it is only logical that marketers seek to research critical attitudes, perceptions, responses and actions which motivate individuals to consume. While a great deal has been written on consumer psychology, consumer behaviour research has not been explored holistically. Unlike traditional understanding, consumer behaviour research, which has been restricted to issues like consumption categories, occupation, social services or influence of persuasion and choice, today encompasses pervasive disciplines and extends to psychology, sociology, economics and communication - to name a few. Therefore, consumer research is not restricted to buyer behaviour or psychology, but also extends to implicit behaviours related to identity, attitudes, experience, responses etc., according to Carmon et al (2001). It is within this context that this author shall explore the topic of consumer research specifically related to the field of tourism marketing. The author is of the view that unlike physical products, tourism is service-oriented and can only be experienced. For marketers in this field to be successful, specific approaches to tourism research must be carried out in order to fully exploit the dimensions of this niche group of consumers. In the following sections, the researcher shall explore approaches to conducting consumer behaviour, then study them in the context of tourism marketing with specific examples, and finally provide some recommendations for the same.
Main Approaches to Conducting Consumer Behaviour Research
Traditionally, consumer behaviour research had been devoted to empirical inquiries, and methods involving statistical measurement of consumption trends. On the other hand, efforts in theoretical development have been restricted to investigation on consumer psychology, whereas consumer behaviour research is a complex analogy related to situational consumption, similar to the case of tourism marketing.
Situational analysis and research of consumption have traditionally been dismissed by researchers, as they involved understanding of cognitive paradigm, research of too specific behaviour and restricted consumption behaviour to situations. However, experts like Foxall (1990 qt. Foxall 1999) are of the view that "situational influence on consumer behaviour in which the responses of consumers are determined by the contingencies of reinforcement under which they are emitted" (p.571) is unique and is a product of interaction between the stimuli and the setting (See Figure 1 below).
Figure 1
Source: Foxall 1999
Consumer behaviour settings should, therefore, be taken into account, as well as how the consumer reacts in response to them. Consumer behaviour research in this context, according to Hirschman and Holbrook (1986 qt.Woodcruffe 1996), is "an emerging view of the consumer behaviour that enlarges the conventional decision-oriented approach to embrace a more experiential perspective" (p.13). Instead, it should involve cognition, behaviour, experience, viewpoint, roles, and idealism. For this purpose, approaches to consumer behaviour research should encompass comprehensive consumption philosophies that transcend the barriers of disciplines. This tradition is called interpretive research, which offers practical understanding of the perspectives under discussion whether it be quantitative or qualitative, and is adopted by marketers and advertising professionals across the world.
Interpretive research focuses on consumption "as a major site of meaning and social identity formation, or on the situated symbolic practices of marketing management", according to Hackley (2003), and involves semiotics which is "the process of extracting messages and significance from signs, and thereby generating meaning". Thus, interpretive research is imbedded in the study of consumer behaviour in the context of the environment in which they (the consumers) live, or the influence of the environment on their behaviour such as culture, localised meanings, communication forms, inherent behaviour related to the environment etc. (Hackley 2003).
Other researchers (Phillimore and Goodson 2004) are of the view that there are two broad approaches to consumer behaviour research from the scientific point of view. Similar to the interpretive consumer research philosophy, Phillimore and Goodson provide that tourism involves both qualitative and quantitative research. Qualitative research involves activities including data collection such as events, occurrences and behaviours, as well as problems, processes and actions that influence them. Qualitative research of consumer research involves hypothesis testing of perceived information that quantitative research cannot determine. The paradigm upon which qualitative research is based is positivist which comprises of the epistemology and the exploration of ontology of sophisticated debates.
On the other hand, some consumer research can be measured and carried out through a deterministic approach, where hypotheses are tested and verified or modified to provide research findings. Depending on the topic, research approach can be chosen from these two broad categories, ranging from empirical and statistical measures under quantitative research to the development of theoretical framework in ethnography and behavioural observations under the qualitative approach. The choice depends on the main problem or issue that the researcher attempts to understand.
Account of Consumer Behaviour and Marketing in Tourism
Tourism is an emerging field which has yet to be acknowledged as having its own mechanism, innovation and development. While tourism activities have become an acknowledged source for global prosperity, its development is yet to be determined. Likewise, promotion of tourism by contemporary marketers still edges upon buyer behaviour and primarily rests on the service-as-a-product dimension. However, marketers are finding that the key to successful tourism development and promotion is through consumer behaviour research based on the complex phenomenon of infrastructure, physical resources, human interaction and experiences. In this regard, consumer research has been limited in scope, traditionally (Cooper and Hall 2008). Today, service is considered to have a broad connotation as it is defined as:
"… an act or performance offered by one party to another...Services are economic activities that create value and provide benefits for customers at specific times and places, as a result of bringing about a desired change in - or on behalf of - the recipient of the service." (Lovelock and Wright 2002, p.6). The Olympics games are one example that denotes this value.
Consumer behaviour in the tourism cadre is motivated by the pull factors, according to Hudson(1999), such as desire to interact with the environment other than their homes, destination attractiveness, fantasy motivation, and/or desire to befriend or visit friends or relatives. The push and pull factors play great roles in determining consumer wants to escape the environment in which he/she lives in or seeks to reward him/herself. Consequently, research in this field needs to delve deeper than travel motivation (See Figure 2).
Figure 2
Seeking Personal Rewards
Escaping Personal Environments
Escaping Interpersonal Environments
Seeking Interpersonal Rewards
Source: Mannel and Iso-Ahola 1987
In services consumption, the value element differs from physical goods (See Figure 3), which is why consumer behaviour research also differs. In this regard, it would be appropriate for a researcher to undertake a qualitative approach which can explore the transition and difference of consumption motivation between service and physical products. Thus, the value of a new car differs from the airline flight; as one reflects ownership and identity, while the other motivation for escape or reward. The marketing of both of these cannot be based on the same plane as motivation for acquiring transportation, even though physically they both represent the same ideology.
Figure 3
Source: Lovelock and Wright 2002
Likewise, Bareham (2004) is of the view that consumer psychographic profile differs greatly, depending on the situation or events of their lives such as war, economic crises, terrorism or global business upheaval. Alternatively, they also differ when these conditions are positive such as technological innovations, service innovation or growth in age or career. Over time, values change, and so do consumers' perception of security, family, rewards, love, food, vanity etc. (Bareham 2004), which makes it difficult for the study of their behaviour set at one place in time. Instead, it would be more meaningful for the consumer researcher to adopt the quantitative approach to study trends to be able to predict the future consumption behaviour. This is, however, a restrictive ideology. For example, it would be feasible to determine the rising number of Thai or Chinese restaurants, but one cannot use the same tool to determine the preference for particular type of food year on end, as consumers change in values in terms of their perceptions of service quality, cross-cultural motivation and variety hospitality service. Likewise, the production and distribution of services in Thai hotels may wane to give way to hotels of other destinations, perhaps China or Vietnam or other extraordinary destinations.
Having evaluated the choices for qualitative, quantitative or interpretative research approaches, the author still believes that the search for appropriate approaches depends on the understanding of the expansiveness of global marketplace, its multi-cultural dimension, as well as the inconsistent nature of consumer behaviour. No singular approach is appropriate for determining the choice of particular destination or hotel preference where tourism is concerned. This is because, apart from modern consumer awareness of marketing, advertising and manipulation by the media, consumers' perceptions and attitudes towards global culture, destinations and service quality vary, depending on influences and interfaces of the value chain (Weiermair 2004; Oliver qt. Holbrook 1999).
Critique of the Value of Consumer Behaviour Research
From the above review of approaches to consumer behaviour research related to tourism, it seems that no particular research approach is appropriate for tourism alone. The qualitative approach no doubt provides a reasonable scope for exploring the dynamics of consumerism, especially for service disciplines which require in-depth study of individual psychology, ethnicity, culture, economics, motivation etc. Yet, on the other hand, when research scopes are broadened, their accuracy tends to wane in the face of complexity of consumer behaviour of niche groups or segments. This is particularly true when applied to the field of for example, ocean cruise tourists who have particular set(s) of motivation, behaviour(s) and perception(s) of the value of the services they consume. This may be determined by qualitative research, but it is also subject to individual interpretation of consumer behaviours.
Alternatively, quantitative approach to consumer research of the same group may be limiting as it can only help predict the number of individuals who purchase a trip on a cruise ship; whereas there may be other issues that motivate the same group of individuals to undertake the same journey. Quantitative approach to consumer research for tourism is, therefore, good in predicting the number of travellers, occupants or consumers of a particular service, but it does not holistically address the need of particular service experience, and neither can it predict what motivates consumers to enable marketers to design campaigns to promote services. In this regard, interpretive and/or qualitative approaches seem to be more appropriate in helping marketers to understand consumer behaviour.
Conclusion
From the above discussion, the author understands that consumer behaviour research in the field of tourism is still at its rudimentary level, which must be explored further by researchers, practitioners and academics alike. This is because, while there are different approaches to tourism consumer research, the limitation of each approach makes it difficult for the researcher or even marketers to rely on the research results for their utility. On the other hand, the author is of the view that since marketing relates to capitalising on human psychology, their preferences and factors influencing their choices, it would be prudent to adopt qualitative and interpretative approach for campaigns and marketing strategy. Particularly in the field of tourism, where experiences, perceived value and responses relate to places, events or situations, researchers rely on the psychology and ethnography of individuals it is safe to recommend the qualitative approach for this purpose.
References
Bareham, J. R. (2004) Can consumers be predicted or are they unmanageable? International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Volume 16 · Number 3 pp. 159-165
Carmon, Z., Dhar, R. and Drolet, A. (2001) Consumer Research: In Search of Identity. Annual Review of Psychology. pp. 249.
Cooper, C. and Hall, M. C. (2008) Contemporary Tourism: An International Approach. Butterworth-Heinemann.
Foxall, G. R. (1999) The behavioural perspective model: Consensibility and consensuality. European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 33 No. 5/6, pp. 570-596.
Foxall, G.R. (1990), Consumer Psychology in Behavioural Perspective, International Thompson Business Press, London and New York, NY.
Hackley, C. (2003) Doing Research Projects in Marketing, Management and Consumer Research. Routledge: New York.
Hirschman, E.C. and Holbrook, M.B. (1986), “Expanding the ontology and methodology of research on the consumption experience”, in Brinberg, D. and Lutz, R.J. (Eds), Perspectives on Methodology in Consumer Research, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, pp. 213-44.
Hudson, S. (1999) "Consumer Behaviour Related to Tourism" in Consumer Behaviour in Travel and Tourism by A. Pizam and Y. Mansfeld. Haworth Press Inc.
Lovelock, C. & Wright, L. (2002) Principles of services marketing (2nd ed.) Upper Saddle River NJ: Prentice Hall
Mannel, R.C., Iso-Ahola, S.E. (1987) Psychological nature of leisure and tourism experience. Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 14 No.3, pp.314-29.
Mitchell, A. A. (1993) Advertising Exposure, Memory and Choice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Hillsdale, pp. 119.
Oliver, R. (1999) "Value as excellence in the consumption experience" in Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research. by M. B. Holbrook. Routledge: London pp. 29.
Phillimore, J. and Goodson, L. (2004) Qualitative Research in Tourism: Ontologies, Epistemologies and Methodologies. Routledge: New York.
Ratneshwa, S. Mick, D. G. and Huffman, C. (eds) (2000) The Why of Consumption: Contemporary Perspectives on Consumer Motives, Goals and Desires. Routledge: London, pp. 9
Weiermair, K. (2004) Tourists' perceptions towards and satisfaction with service quality in the cross-cultural service encounter: implications for hospitality and tourism management. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management Volume 16 Number 3 · pp. 159-165
Woodruff, H. R. (1996) Methodological issues in consumer research: towards a feminist perspective. Marketing Intelligence & Planning. 14/2 pp. 13-18
Bibliography
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