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Participation Observation Research
Participant observation is a method of collecting qualitative data in social research. This method involves the immersion of the researcher in the subject matter so that it can be observed in its natural setting. It involves variable levels of involvement of the researcher on a continuum ranging from passive (observation) to active (participation).
The distinction betweenparticipation and observation is based on the closeness of the researcher tothe subject matter with observation involving external evaluation and recordingof events without the interference of the researcher whilst participationrepresents an internal view in which the researcher records views from within thegroup by acting, overtly or covertly, as a member in order to experience theactuality of the events. For example, in Humphreys study of homosexuals, heplayed an active role by acting as lookout for the police whilst the homosexualencounter occurred in public toilets (Humphreys, 1970). Although Humphreys wasobserving events and gathering data, he was 'inside' the situation thatoccurred thus his presence had some impact on events; things would not haveoccurred exactly as they did had he not been present. Examples of a passiverole include researchers who observe things 'as they happen' but with noinfluence at all on the events that unfold, other than by their mere presence.For example, Patton describes researchers who were recording the reactions ofthe audience to Billy Graham's evangelical preaching (Patton, 2002). Theirrole was to record events without taking any part in the proceedings, althoughtwo researchers were so influenced by his preaching that they put aside theirnotes and joined the congregation.
One of the advantages ofparticipant observation is its ability to facilitate the collection of 'rich'information that is frequently not available from other sources (Babbie, 1995).As such, it can be used to supplement, inform or contradict theorised researchand it can greatly enhance the available knowledge on a subject as a result. Itcan be used either as a preliminary step in a research study by which theresearcher observes events 'as they occur' in order to formulate a hypothesisfor further investigation or it can be used at a more advanced stage of theresearch in order to test a hypothesis formed on the basis of theoreticalresearch (Patton, 2002).
It is believed to elicit 'real'and 'genuine' information that has not been filtered or amended by the researchparticipants as can occur in relation to interview or questionnaire data and,as such, provides unique insights into the subjective viewpoint of theparticipants in the study. With observation, participants may not realisethat they are being watched so they do not moderate their behaviour in any waythus the data gathered in unadulterated. It also provides richer informationthan interviews or questionnaires because it can take into account non-verbalinteraction and behaviour (Berg, 2003). As such, it can be a valuable methodof researching the influence of structures or events on individuals andgroups. There is also the possibility that unexpected and unanticipated eventswill occur during the course of the observation hence its value in accessingunique data (Berg, 2003).
Equally, even with more activeparticipation from the researcher, the subjects of the research may not realisethat they are being observed as it is not uncommon for the researcher toobscure their identity by posing as a member of the group or as someone whowould naturally come into contact with them. For example, in studies of theway in which mentally ill patients are treated by psychiatrists and others inthe medical profession, researchers were admitted into mental health facilitiesby posing as patients so that they could experience the reality of life withinsuch an environment, something that would not have been possible had they announcedtheir presence and their purpose (Winstein, 1982). As this exampledemonstrates, participant observation can be a way to access information fromthose who might be reluctant to give interviews or who would present apolicy-driven view of the subject (Bogdan, 1972). Sometimes, the only way toget around such obstacles is to gain surreptitious access to the environment inorder to experience directly what is happening (Spradley, 1997).
There are limitations to thisresearch method. It can be time-consuming, both in terms of the actualobservations and in preparing and analysing the large amount of resultantdata. This may make it a less cost-effective means of conducting research(Jorgenson, 1993). A second limitation is that it tends to involve theobservation of only a few examples of a particular subject, behaviour or eventthus there is a limit to the extent to which the findings are amenable togeneralisation (Spradley, 1997). A further criticism that can be levelledagainst participant observation is that it is inherently subjective as it notonly focuses on a single (or limited number) of particular observations butthat the recording of the resultant data is subject to the interpretation ofthe researcher (Jorgenson, 1993). Accordingly, there is a possibility ofconscious or unconscious bias which is inconsistent with its appearance,particularly in relation to observation rather than participation, of anobjective and scientific research method. This criticism is furthered inrelation to participation because the researcher plays some kind of role inevents that unfold thus is not a mere passive recipient of information but issomeone who contributes to the shape and content of the resultant data(Spradley, 1993). The final criticism of participant observation that needs tobe addressed is particularly pertinent to participation by the research andthat is issues of deception of the research subjects and the ethical issuesthat therefore arise. This was demonstrated in Humphrey's research withhomosexuals as he posed as a member of their community thus accessing data thatwould not have been available without this deception. The practice ofdeception on research subjects is one that needs to be considered carefullywhen weighing the balance of the strengths and limitations of this researchmethod (Spradley, 1993).
Word Count: 1000 Words
Bibliography
Ackroyd, D. and Hughes, J(1992) Data Collection in Context, 2nd ed., Harlow: Longman
Babbie, E (1995) ThePractice of Social Research, Belmont: Wardsworth
Berg, BL (2003) QualitativeResearch Methods for the Social Sciences, 5th ed., Harlow: Allyn& Bacon
Black, T (2002) Understanding Social Research, London: Sage
Bogden, R (1972) ParticipantObservation in Institutional Settings, Syracuse: Syracuse University Press
Bryman, A (1988) Quantityand Quality in Social Research, Oxford: Routledge
Giddens, A (2002) Sociology,4th ed., Cambridge: Polity Press
Haralombos, M, Heald, R andHolburn, M (2000) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, 5thed., London: Harper Collins
Humphreys, L (1970) Tea-roomTrade, London: Duckworth
Jorgenson, D (1993) ParticipantObservation: a Methodology for Human Studies, Thousand Oaks: SagePublications
Patton, MQ (2002) QualitativeResearch and Evaluation Methods, 3rd ed., London: Sage
Punch, KF (2001) Introductionto Social Research, London: Sage
Sarantokos, S (1998) Social Research, 2nd ed., London: Sage
Spradley, JP (1997) ParticipantObservation, New York: Holt Rinehart & Winston
Winstein, RM (1982) The MentalHospital from the Patient's Point of View in WR Gove (Ed) Deviance andMental Illness, Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications
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