McAfee SECURE sites help keep you safe from identity theft, credit card fraud, spyware, spam, viruses and online scams

Cookie Information

Privacy Information

UK Essays Services:

Free Help:

Failure IT Projects

Abstract

This study aims at exploring the reason for IT project failure and strategies of preventing failure. Accordingly, this document is the compilation of the results of a study of the reasons why IT projects fail and offers possible measures to be taken to counter the failure of IT projects. The investigation is also made by paying particular focus on the human and time-keeping aspects of IT projects in relation to project failures. The study result is presented in four chapters. Chapter two presents review of relevant literature and examined such major questions as what IT projects are, why IT projects fail, and what strategies to follow to prevent IT project failures. Chapter three presents close examination of human and time management aspect of IT projects. Chapter four presents conclusive summary and suggestions for future projects.

Preface

This study aims at exploring the reason for IT project failure and strategies of preventing failure. This project involved reading considerable amount of information from various secondary sources and sifting through for information pertinent to the topic of interest. The process also involved analysis, critical reflection and organizing the condensed information in to proper structure with flow and coherence. Finally conclusive remarks are also given both summarizing and reflecting on the discussions made in Chapter two and three. Moreover, the project involved planning, project execution following the plan and successful completion through the production of this report.

Introduction

The rate of change in the business arena is continuously increasing and companies are continuously seeking innovative products, services and knowledge-enabled processes to enable them to compete effectively against each other. IT plays a major role as an enabler to organization so that businesses and public institutions can effectively and efficiently carry out these processes. As much as it is crucially helpful for business competitiveness, if mismanaged for various reasons, the implementation of IT projects is destined to fail with disastrous implication to the organizations' business.

An in-depth research will be carried out by fully exploiting various sources like online journals, hardcopy journals, relevant case studies and books to clearly depict the major reasons for IT project failures and also the adequate ways to avoid them. Accordingly, this document is the compilation of the results of a study of the reasons why IT projects fail and offers possible measures to be taken to counter the failure of IT projects.

Chapter two presents review of relevant literature and examined such major questions as what IT projects are, why IT projects fail, and what strategies to follow to prevent IT project failures. Chapter three presents close examination of human and time management aspect of IT projects. Chapter four presents conclusive summary and suggestions for future projects.

3. To have a deep understanding of IT project failures, major reasons they happen and clearly stated ways of possibly halting the problems.

The methodology used for this study is reviewing secondary resources that elaborated and summarized the various sources of failure in IT project together with relevant aspects and remedial suggestions. The literature review is made with the guiding intent of understanding the wider problem area and narrow down the focus to the human and time management aspects of IT projects. For presentation of result, discussion is made in two chapters, viz, Chapter Two and Three. Chapter four presents the summary of key points in tandem with suggestions for project management in the information technology area.

Literature Review

In the following literature review section, presentation is made after referring previous secondary sources and studies in the area of IT project management and related problems. This exploration is made in order to understand the problem area properly and ensure that the focal topic of this dissertation, i.e. human aspect of IT projects and time management, is examined within an informed frame of analysis. To this end, review of relevant secondary resources is made to get preliminary answers to the following major questions:

IT projects are projects with a major goals of initiating, designing, implementing and supporting a system that captures, processes, stores and retrieve information. In its present form, an IT system involves the use of modern, fast computers, networks, trained staff, end-users, procedures and security safe guards among others.

IT projects like any other projects have to start with feasibility study and objective setting. Objectives of the project, among others, influence the details of user requirement and a set of activities the project staff carry out during the project life span. Toward the realization of project objectives, time scale, human, material and other resources have to be allocated, monitored and assessed for efficiency.

IT projects establish systems of information processing that improves productivity, ease of information access and change traditional working manners. Hence, IT projects not only bring change and challenge to employees in business contexts, but also create a juncture for interaction among various groups of people with their respective interests and motives.

In IT projects, information systems are developed through a set of processes, which require proper planning and execution. While designing the project and during implementation, a number of factors play impeding or facilitating role for a project success. There are also aspects intertwined with each other with negative interrelationships. For example, the cost, speed of delivery, quality of final product and various forms of risk taken during the development process operate very closely. Quality of the product and speed are inversely related; where as, speed and cost are positively related. Increasing speed of project implementation causes either quality compromise or increased cost. It is not possible to increase all these aspects at once and expect to remain within budget and schedule. [Dorsey, 2000]

In the same vein, Phillips (no date, URL) explored an IT project management topic in an effort to provide means of reducing problems in implementing IT projects. Historically there are tested and verified methodologies and techniques of project management like in the areas of building construction. However, in IT projects, there are added peculiarities owing to the fast changing nature of technology, business requirements and changes the use of IT introduces. However, IT projects, like any other, are undertaken with the confines of time, cost and scope. The scope of the project is determined by the goal and a set of objectives, which in turn influence the set of project activities. Corresponding to activities, projects require budget and timescale. The success or failure of projects rests in the interaction and the degree of balance among these crucial project aspects. From the process perspective, IT projects like any other have identifiable set of activities that often include initiation, planning, execution, monitoring and control, review. During these processes, issues of management approval, leadership competence, previous experience, and team building are among the outstanding factors of the human aspect of projects.

In the past, there have been many IT project failures that cause business collapses, interruption and project abandonment. Bennett, etal (2003, 27) mentioned some cases of IT project failure. In 1994, one-third of all investment on information system development was an expense incurred because of It project failures, which amounted to $81 billion annually. Even if this has improved as indicated in another study in 2001, almost half of a sample of 300, 000 IT projects were reported to have problems of various types and extent. In the UK too many IT projects were reported to have faced losses and problems both in private and public sector contexts. Among the most publicized ones, the UK Passport agency, the National probation Service, the Immigration and Nationality Directorate, the Child Support agency and National Air Traffic Control Service were salient ones. In these cases, lack of competence in project management and shortage of financial resources were the explanations that were given for these fiascos.

There are many things that could go wrong in an IT project management. Andy McCue [2006, URL] looked at a government report that raised the alarm in 2006 when many government IT projects loom to disaster. The government report assessed 409 projects against the performance monitoring instrument issues in 2001. The tool is knows as the “gate way process” that attempted to lay out successive check points where performance assessment and objective revisits are to made along the process of project implementation. The Office of Government Commerce's Gateway review system conducted a study on these 409 projects between 2004 and 2006 and indicated that about one-third of these projects were on the way to disaster unless corrective measures are taken as a matter of urgency. The rate of projects rated on track to failure for the two years period has increased by four percent in the comparable two years period of 2002 to 2004.

The list of potential problems IT projects possibly encounter can be looked at using the following categories:

At the project initiation and design stage, analysis of requirements of users from the system to be developed has to be made. Normally project goal and objectives are set based on the outcome of the analysis. When the analysis lacks thoroughness or is not carried out in a rush to get the project up and running, keeping track of activities and achieving the overall goal would be far more difficult. Since resources and time are limited, a gradual discovery of missing requirement and an attempt to add to the functionalities to the system could lead to a loss of grip on the project scope. Non-existent user requirement could also lead to a wrong estimation of cost and time for the project, which is a recipe for disaster.

At the project implementation stage, a number of problems could potentially occur. The system may get completed in time and budget but could fail to provide all user requirements. And for a lack of the required functionalities, a system becomes unusable and unproductive. The system developed may also host quality problems that could be in relation to such aspects as security, usability, compatibility, agility. For example, if the system breaks down when pressed with task load, the system was not made fit for purpose that estimation of workload was not up to the required level. The project implementation could also go beyond the budget allocated and for project managers either to ask for more money or drop certain proposed system components. If the initial project design is done with the guidance of user requirement and crucial components are taken out for lack of budget, this could reduce the overall productivity and value of the system.

Likewise budget, IT projects could encounter failure to meet deadlines. The ways out from such project implementation problem would be dropping out certain parts, deploy additional manpower to increase implementation pace or extending deadlines. In the last two cases, additional cost is incurred and could lead to an uncontrollable spiral of expenses. If the system is not sufficiently checked for fitness through testing and in accordance to the acceptance level, the system can cause further economic and even human life loss depending on how mission critical the system is. Also, if various sub-groups develop components without clear understanding and sufficient communication, integrating the sub-components could lead to problems.

Once the system is delivered, training staff and/or end user demonstrations are as much important as an ongoing support. Often projects are handed over to clients and users may end up struggling to use the system and successfully under go the shift from traditional working methods.

A cross-cutting issue that could cause project failure at all phases of a project's life cycle is communication problem. Communication takes one of the most complex forms since a wide range of people play role during project implementation. It has to be carried out sufficiently among expert staff members, with suppliers, with projected end-users. Very closely related with communication problems area is the lack of timely control of suppliers and sub-contractors that could contribute to a project failure.

Mangione (2003, URL) explored the reasons and cost of IT projects failure. Accordingly, a crucial point made in this article is that there is often contention as to the meaning of failure in IT projects. Failure may manifest in the form of unmet deadline, the systems fail to completely fulfil user requirement, or errors in the new systems crop up etc. As the consequence of such failures, the organization developing the system may incur unplanned financial expenses and business image damage. When the system fails to properly capture user requirement and subsequent design mistakes made, fixing deviations and bugs require further time and resource. In various system development methodologies, viz, water fall, reiterative, spiral methods, different strategies are used to keep the cost of a project under control. But an increase in the cost of a project is uniform when deviation from plan, due to mistakes, bugs and fixes, etc is minimal. When the gap widens, cost increases in a faster pace paving the way to many forms of project failures.

Mangione (2003, URL) identify four types of failure in software development projects, which has a great deal of common feature with IT projects. The first sort is when the steady progress of the project suddenly encounters a stumbling block due to staff-related problems or an incomplete requirement that is accompanied by a soaring cost. The second type is that the project staff members complete most of the activities and end up adding features that increases project cost and prevent project completion. As a result project completion would either be far more expensive than planned for or simply would not be possible in time. The third type is a situation where many user questions are raised and answering them in the form of bug fix, demonstration and productivity trials, which consequently stalls the project progress. The fourth type of failure is when the improvement requests for version one cause cost increase and second version becomes either economically unproductive or prohibitively expensive.

Failures in IT projects can be also looked at into such groups as planning issues, requirement and technical issues, human relation issues and project management issues. Regarding project planning, a number of things go wrong. To start with, projects often lead to fruition if the project initiation and design were made based on a justified business need. Even after need identification, sufficient agreement has to be created among end users, management and project initiators. Equally important here is making a realistic estimate and allocation of time, money and human resources to implement the project. Glossing over any of these issues and unfounded start of projects can only lead to a failure in a great majority of the cases. [Carmine Mangione, 2007, URL]

Likewise, user requirements are specific details that guide project activity identification and execution. However, many things can go wrong in relation to user requirements. The users of IT systems have to be consulted and be given chances to shape up the list of requirements. Also during project implementation, technology choice, lack of quality control like through testing, not keeping track of project and requirement scope all are sources of risk of failure. The human aspect of project management is among the trickiest issues that call for experience and good judgement. Properly managing team of experts and the relationship with other stakeholders can prevent project failure. The issues range from top management support, stakeholder dissatisfaction with level of recognition to their needs, lack of cooperation and team spirit among staff members, lack of dedication to project work and to lack of experience. The fourth major area is poor project management practice. Project managers should have previous experience, alert and attentive look at the project progress status. Project progress by nature is difficult to measure since technical details can only be understood by experts and project managers have to depend on what they get from status report. All alike, the project schedule and cost should go according to plan with some degree of flexibility owing to unforeseen factors. [Carmine Mangione, 2007, URL]

Levinson (2006) quoted the Standish Group, an IT consultancy firm, that a study conducted in 2004 showed 69 percent failure among IT projects in various forms. The problems encountered were going beyond deadline, missing features from user requirements, requiring additional budget. Project management skills are very crucial for IT projects since experience and skills bring together the efforts of IT departments and staff with that of the rest of the business in organizations. While end users should be given chance to express their expectations and needs, IT professionals have to be able to explain what can and can not be achieved using IT. [Joseph Phillips, no date]

Bennett etal (2003, pp. 26-35) pointed out that information system projects are complex and problems encountered during implementation are perceived differently by various groups involved. Projects could be not delivered in the initial deadline, go over budget, or are abandoned when cost spirals out of control. The perception and interpretation of what went wrong in the projects differ among the three groups identified by Bennett etal: end-users, clients that commission the system development and developers. This variation is due to lack of communication and consequent mistakes in decision makings all along the initial analysis, design, implementation and control processes. When not sufficiently involved and convinced, end-users question a new information system along quality level, usability, fitness for purpose, etc. Those parties that commission the information system development find project implementation problematic because of excessive budget requirement, delay in delivery, change of business need, etc. Developers, on the other hand, interpret IT project failures due to mismatch of interpretation from what the client asked or due to change of mind on the client's side, lack of experience and time, etc.

Bennett, etal (2003) also explain why we have to be concerned with information systems' failures. The obvious losses when projects do not meet deadlines or exceed budget is monetary lose and business gains that otherwise would have been attained using the system. Moreover, a rather critical point to remember here is that depending on the nature of business problem addressed, failure in an information system could mean loss of job, loss of life or business image in organizations. The system developers may not encounter the system failure during the project implementation period. The end-users and/or clients of the project would face problem if systems are developed with bugs, missing functionalities and sub-standard quality. Hence, to dry up potential source of system failure, project initiation, design, implementation, testing and control have to be carried out professionally and with due adherence to ethical rules. Alike ethical considerations, in UK it is also a legislative duty of information system developers to handle their responsibility properly and by ensuring the safety and interest of all stakeholders.

Bennett etal (2003, pp. 43-44) also pointed out that when considering what the exact amount an IT project or information system failure costs, it could probably be not known in full. This is due to certain cases where the system does not fail right at deployment and when errors crop up gradually. In addition, businesses tend to cover up information system failures in order to protect their public image. But a faulty system creates usability and stability problems unless design and implementation as well as acceptance testing and control are carried out thoroughly.

Dorsey (2000) discussed top ten factors that contribute to an IT project failures. In this list of factors, lack of clear methodology, time scale set ahead of understanding requirements, lack of technically competent leadership and model design faults are among the major ones. If such strategic decisions as whether to buy bespoke software and customize it or develop a new from the scratch or to analyze user requirements sufficiently from the outset rather than to try leave out potentially critical elements to be discovered along the way are not made with due consideration of business environment, cost, staff experience and time, failure can easily happen. Also, project failure can be prevented if project managers allow project activity breakdown to dictate timescale estimate rather than set time beforehand and work backwards from project completion time. These are critical junctions of decision making that make difference between project failure and success.

Nick [Jenkins 2006] explains also lists ten important truths that are crucial for a project success. The obvious starting point is setting clear goal for a project towards which time, resource and management expertise will be invested. As much as knowing goals, sufficient understanding of the work team and stakeholders involved in the project should be acquired to carry out a project with success. Apart from initial investment in time to ensure that clear steps and procedures are identified for project implementation, controlling execution to keep in track is equally important. In the dynamics of project implementation, discoveries often are made as to requirements overlooked and temptation to add new functionalities arise. To prevent project failure due to ever expanding requirements, disciplined and realistic judgement by project managers is necessary to deviate only in a reasonable extent.

Likewise, Garrett (2007, URL) discusses ten reasons why IT projects fail. In his article, Tech and Trend, David Garrett pointed out that over one-third of IT projects fail for various reasons. As often observed, change resistance in organizations is a fact intimately seen in relation to IT projects. New information systems and softwares change and possibly challenge the existing communication and work tradition. As a result, IT systems after investment and a lot of effort may end up being less productive or sidelined. The resistance does not always come from ordinary workers. At times this can be from management level that even has stronger impact on adoption and effective IT integration. Projects are also prone to failure if no or not a proper planning is made before the commencement of implementation. There is no planning as you go. Even for planning and project execution, the right tool has to be chosen so that no unnecessary distraction is created that adversely affects the implementation process. Also, during the project implementations process, problems of practically controlling progress status beyond reports by project staff is a factor explaining some project failures. With a sufficiently and reasonably detailed requirements list, project implementation and progress have to be closely monitored to prevent failure or assure success. Projects also benefit and reduce chance of failure when good budget estimation, usage and control are made. Once the main project execution is over and the system deployed, user support is necessary since getting the system used by end-users is as much important as developing it to the required quality and requirements.

Sharma (2007, URL) also discusses ten reasons why IT projects often fail. At the core of IT project failure, lack of top management endorsement or dedication, lack of clear project scope and frequent changes to accommodate discoveries, inability to properly capture user requirements stand as the salient sources of risk. When user requirements are not sufficiently captured and translated in to system functions, adding new ones along the project implementation becomes necessary. Frequent addition and change in requirements not only creates risk of failure, but also transforms in to going over schedule with corresponding cost. The project processes should be clearly stipulated together with the user requirements of the IT system. Problems potentially encounter during project planning and execution processes. Poor estimate of time and resource needed for the project implementation is as much a challenge as lack of appreciation from the top management. When project objectives and requirements are not properly and sufficiently worked out initially, changes is eminent during the implementation process, which requires its own management arrangement.

Brook is quoted by Jenkins (2006, URL) as saying that in the competition and interaction of time, cost and quality in project execution, due to the human communication aspect of projects, the positive relationship between more staff and speedy project delivery only holds true to a certain extent. After the optimal level, more staff means more communication problem and not necessarily quicker delivery of project results. Likewise, projects success can be assured through development of clear functional requirements. Stockholder of the system have to be identified and dealt with, which can be top management, end-users and the expert staff or out-sourced service providers. Jenkins also points out important human aspects of IT projects. In this regard, team building, managers' social skills, negotiation skills and delegation are important skills from project mangers.

Phillips (no date, URL) also discussed what causes IT projects failure. Apart from project management problems mentioned in the foregone sections, IT projects have peculiar challenges that range from hardware and software shortcomings, to manufacturers' standard incompatibility, and security. These added risks are distinctive sources of failure. Joseph Phillips also emphasised the crucial importance of the project initiation and planning stage with regard to preventing project failure by saying, “projects fail at the beginning and not at the end.” Another reason why IT projects fail as to Philips is that business competition drives organization in to a requirement for a fast-tracked project implementation. Such rush in project implementation often suffers from a limited or not sufficient risk analysis, wrong estimation of resource and time requirements, etc. Likewise, IT projects fail because the initiators or organizations aim for too ambitious scope and goal. As a remedy, Philips proposes that bigger project scopes can gradually be achieved by approaching project planning and implementation in a serious of smaller projects.

Krigsman (2007, URL) explains that IT projects involve a number of groups of stakeholders, who bring differing objectives, priorities, motives and interests in the interaction of initiating and implementing an IT project. Apart from technical complexity, IT projects have non-technical complexities. In summary, a risk of an IT project failure can emanate from such sources as project initiation and planning process, technical and user requirement issues, stakeholders and team management issues, or from project management issues. During the project initiation and planning, mistakes can be made that includes poor project scope definition, lack of clear project approval process, and unrealistic estimation of resource and time requirements. In relation to user requirement and technical issues, project problems can arise because of absence of user involvement, inappropriate technology used for implementation, and sub-components integration problems. Another source of risk of failure for an IT project is insufficient stakeholder and work teams management. In this case, team members may lack experience, dedication and authority to make decisions. Other stakeholders also play productive roles when their needs and expectations are recognized and addressed. Krigsman also pointed out problem at the management level. IT projects suffer when the management does not have sufficient communication skills, leadership qualities, thorough and consistent reporting and control.

Bourn (2006, URL) reported some of the reasons why IT projects fail after examining twenty four projects. The list of such factors include lack of experience in managing projects and risk, lack of senior management involvement, work teams and stakeholders with widespread communication problems and over ambitious plans resulting in an overpowering project scope. In relation these points, Krigsman (2006, URL) explains that the study result highlighted an important fact that technology is not even the frequently cited source of IT project failure. Instead, human relation, communication and project management stand out as the usual culprits.

Bennett, etal (2003) have summarized the categories of failures identified in relation to IT projects. Accordingly, information systems can fail either in quality or in productivity. Quality of the system deigned and developed can be questioned when the driving force after the project initiation was wrong, mistakes made during the project requirement analysis or the system tried to address the wrong problem. Likewise, the system may turn out to be unproductive as expected due to poor project control, change in the system implementation environment or outside of it, change of business requirement or lack proper project control. Here, it is worth noting that information system is more inclusive than information technology, since the former one includes human beings, procedures and norms in addition to the hardware and software technologies. However, observations made in information system development projects can be taken as being equally valid in IT projects.

A report by the Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (2003) indicated that public sector has its own sets of problems that cause IT project failure. The UK government had prepared an ambitious plan in 2003 to make all public service available through internet by 2005. There was pressure to meet these goals for political and a public accountability reasons. The major features characterizing the public sector that caused IT project failure were: extended resource procurement time, high publicity and the political environment.

IT projects vary in size, scope and goals. Recommendations made by different experts and researchers attempt to provide a generic set of good practice guide. Notwithstanding the project variations, in the following section suggestions made by various people are discussed.

As to Jenkins (2006, URL), it is important to have a proper planning process that identifies project execution stages, methodologies and sets time as well as resource estimates. As part of the planning process, risk analysis and preparation of risk management mechanisms are needed.

According to Phillips (no date, URL), there are three types of approaches to an IT project management. The first and commonly used one is using experience and methodologies used for traditional project management like in construction industry. The second one is extreme programming, which uses repetitive processes of analysing, designing, implementing and testing. The third type is known as Scrum, which has some resemblance with the extreme programming and follows strict rule of attaining successive objectives and communication among people involved.

Phillips (ibid) suggested that using the ISO standards for information systems is a method of identifying a project with high likelihood of failure. Another aid to project success is using the “15-15 rule.” This rule is a benchmark to identify a project that would fail if it exceeds the proposed timescale by fifteen percent or requires fifteen percent more resource than planned for. Also, the use of a technique called “earned value management” is suggested by Phillips. This technique is a system used to monitor performance along project timeline as well as cost projection and note deviations to use them as inputs for decision making and corrective measures. Once a project is identified as a failed one owing to various factors, it should be abandoned to prevent further loss. To this end, the signs of failure in an IT project could be exceeding budget allocated, failing to meet deadline, too much scope creep. As an approach to project management, it is advised using a clearly identified and commonly understood methodology for planning, executing and monitoring a project's progress. If the project manager and others involved in it clearly know what to expect, it is relatively easy to diagnose a serious problem in the project implementation progress.

For a project to be successful, Visitacion (2003, URL) identified five crucial phases of a project life cycle. The stages or processes presented as good project management practice are scope, planning, execution, control and closure. Projects can be made successful by managing them using a series of smaller sets of activities called phases. Before engaging in a project initiation and planning, there has to be an analysis clearly confirming the need for the project and what is should achieve. Likewise, initial management understanding of its value and business contribution has to be secured since this has implications for resource commitment and proper priority setting. During the planning process, it is advised that user requirement should be established in consultation with stakeholders and by producing prototypes in all occasions possible. Complementary to this, successive milestones have to be identified to mark fulfilment of sub-section objectives and transition from one stage to the next. Milestones should not be too much least attaining and following them would prove difficult. It is also helpful to make a project successful to inform other about the plan and delegate roles and responsibilities as appropriate. During project execution, regardless of the project size smaller teams work more effectively and communication would be relatively easier that means a better chance to remain focused on tasks of top priority. Also, to track progress, audit of millstones attained and failed has to be kept together with measuring the productivity level. And finally, projects should properly be closed. Closure involves revisiting outstanding issues that required change and adjustment during the project implementation process. This process should aim at learning from the past experience and can be used as an input for future projects. Project closure should also include assessing the performance and status of the system delivered after deployment and with in the normal working environment of business and organizations.

In summary, the discussion in this chapter attempted to answer four central questions: What IT projects are, what failure means in IT projects context, what factors explain failure and what coping / prevention strategies are suggested. The following chapter discusses human aspect and time management problems in IT projects.

human and time management aspects of IT projects

When it comes to the human aspect of IT projects, there are some central issues like team building, communication among project members, interaction with stakeholders and top management interaction with project leaders.

Broadly speaking, business, public or other forms of organizations have human and non-human aspects as components of their essence. While buildings, logos, policies, functional units and financial wealth are examples of the non-human elements; executives, project managers and other employees are few examples of the human aspect. Changes like introduction of a new technology such as IT or Customer Relationship Management (CRM) softwares entails change in the established pattern and habit of communication, interaction and power relationship. In comparison with the non-human aspect, the human aspect of organizations is very dynamic and potent to pose a complicated source of risk of resistance and failure. Difference in motivation level, motives, political power, standing in the status quo, past experience and the external environment all could exert influence and manipulation on organizations efficiency, survival and perception. By using the case of a CRM system introduction in to businesses, Conner (2001) discusses the typical difference between organizations that manage change successfully and fail to do so. Accordingly, the human aspect of organizations resists change and it is stronger when the degree of change is more radical upsetting the relative equilibrium achieved currently. [Conner, 2001, pp. 5-7, URL]

Conner (2001) referenced a study pointing out that when businesses face problems in relation to IT projects, software and hardware are the sources of problem only in about fifteen percent of the case. Moreover, the majority of cases are human-related aspects of the project. Organization are observed face a number of problem in the process of adopting new IT technology in the organization and restructure their working process, established culture and redefine staff roles and responsibilities. Accordingly, organizations need to incorporate users' inputs, concerns and perspectives in IT project designs and execution so that chance of success and business benefits increase. But end users are not the only groups that have to be considered here. Equally relevant, if not more influentially, project leaders and senior management have to be involved in project initiation decisions. It is observed in projects that senior management members changed the level of commitment for the project owing to other pressing needs arising during the course of project implementation, internal politics in the organization, acquiring more clear ideas about the nature of the project as implementation unfolds, etc. [Conner, 2001, p.p 11-13, URL.]

To look at an example, Conner discussed the case of Customer relationship management (CRM) program or system planning and installation. Like other IT projects, a CRM project has the software and configuration platforms as central component. The other components are better and increased relationships with customers, collective mindset that is conducive of the CRM system and individual sense of responsibility and role awareness with positive attitude towards the system. Conner also points out that CRM project managers have been observed considering it as primarily a process of applying technology to the business of an organization and make related cultural change secondary. Contrary to this, CRM project, as an example of an IT project, is essentially a broad array of social change that includes technology in the form of CRM software and supporting platforms. [Conner, no date, pp. 15-16, URL.]

3.1.1.1 Communication

Communication is a fundamental requirement in an IT project management all through out its life cycle. At the initial phase of project initiation, communication has to be made with clarity and inclusiveness in order to achieve common understanding about the objectives of the project, how much time and other resources required and allocated as well as project implementation strategies. This communication need also has to include all stakeholders and the project's overall effectiveness and business benefits will be compromised, if not lead to failure, unless common understanding is established. Failing to secure the agreement and shared understanding of all stakeholders about the project objective, scope, proposed outcomes, timescale and resource requirement is planning to fail. It is also necessary to remember that communication is affected by the scope of the project, which, in turn, has implication for the number of people involved, the level if hierarchy created, role distribution, etc. [Haughey, (a), no date, URL] It is helpful to clearly identify potential source of communication barriers and breakdown points and prepare for necessary correction and facilitation. Leaving no room for assumption is the suggested preventive solution for this shortfall. [Haughey, (c), no date, URL]

Bryce (no date) explains that projects better managed when the context organization puts value on the importance of the project. As to Bryce, project management is only a perspective of undertaking a project and not something that can be equated with a set of tools and techniques. Accordingly, Bryce identified aspects that demonstrate the level of importance the organization places on a project. The first indictor is effort made to ensure that people internal or external to the organization entrusted with the project management have understanding of set of concepts and procedures project management involves. Ability to perform project management effectively and efficiently can only come when the foundational know how exists. Secondly, organizations proactively set a standard procedure of project management sanctioned in the form of an organization-wide policy. It would be conditioned on individuals' level of ability instead of ensuring reasonably close outcomes and levels of performance. In relation to this, organizations sometimes fail to enforce a policy with regard to standardizing project management. In summary, Bryce explains that project management is a management strategy of administering human beings in a project and its effectiveness is as good as the people use it. [Bryce, 2006, URL]

Bryce (2006) also pointed out three important elements in a project management: discipline, organization, accountability. Peoples personal attitude, organizational culture, political and social affiliations from the society all play a role in the level of commitment people show with regard to these values. Disciplined project staff members have to follow a set of procedures and techniques of organizing their work, collaborating, communicating and accomplishing tasks. Any aversion to such standardized procedure of working not only leads to divergent end result but also contribute to troubled communication. The other important value is accountability. It is taking responsibility for achievement as well as failure to deliver agreed outcome. Check on compliance with accountability requirements is made through evaluation and monitoring. It is also beneficial if project manager take proactive stance than a reactive one, which means forward planning and preventing project problems rather than trying to stamp out fire when it breaks out. [Bryce, 2006, URL]

Haughey (b) (no date, URL) examined the source of project problem along its life cycle. Accordingly, at the project initiation phase, unambiguous definition of the project and establishing a shared understanding is a point identified as being crucial. Properly understood user requirement guides the project activity and serves as yardstick to assess the overall achievement of the project. At the project execution stage, lack of communication that enables project managers and staff to control change, addition or exclusion of user requirements, and adjustment measures can lead to wastage of project time, duplication of effort among others. The communication should include clients or those who provided the resources and business case as well as end users. All changes should be reflected in project plans and project staff members take the changes in to consideration in all further activities. [Haughey, (b), no date, URL] [Carlos, no date, URL]

Awati (no date), discussed obstacle to communication in a project setting with a special reference to an IT project. In such situation, the project may involve developing a new system or upgrading and existing one in the form of packaged activities and related planning processes. Also, the communication requirement could possibly be across organizations, departments, work teams and specialist areas. However, the presence of such distinct entities normally entails competition to defend respective interests, influences and perceived power position. The political environment should be duly recognized and necessary adjustment should be made by a way of securing fulfilment of respective contribution and roles. In the interaction with external stakeholders, due to difference in organizational culture, work relationship may suffer. Accordingly, this has to be recognized in the project plan and implementation strategy. One more communication barriers here is the conceptual and meaning differences when people of various profession, training, interest and level of experience meet. Communication has to be unambiguous and precise reference in technical terms and languages should be used in order to prevent confusion, frustration and communication breakdown. [Awati, no date, URL]

Lane (no date) pointed out that by 2010 Web Conferencing technologies will be commonly used like e-mail today by about 75 percent of all companies. The implication for project management and specifically for communication and time management is that virtual meetings and conferences among project staff, management and other stakeholders can be initiated with a relative ease. Apart from economic gains on transport and phone call savings, these web conference and meeting technologies enable project manager keep abreast of project implementation progress and deal with issues as they arise. The close follow up puts project mangers in a position to intimately know project dynamics and provide support as well as get updates. This should not be taken too far and cause intrusion among work teams. [Lane, no date, URL]

- Project requirements and business case identification and common understanding;

- Project feasibility analysis and inclusion of perspectives, inputs and concerns of all stakeholders.

- Project Definition (scope, aim, objectives, cost, time scale, etc);

- Project role setting and distribution as well as acceptance;

- Ensure the availability of a right skill mix among staff members;

- Project status monitoring and reporting;

- Problem encountered and adjustment measures;

- Team building and collaboration;

- communicating with all stakeholders to inform their expectation forming process;

PROJECT INITIATION PHASE

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

PROJECT PLANNING PHASE

- Measure the project's overall performance level;

- Project review and lessen learnt by involving all stakeholders;

- Integration of outcomes from various path of execution.

PROJECT COMPLETION

PHASE

COMMUNICATION REQUIREMENTS

(Activities that benefit from clear and inclusive communication)

Figure 1: Schematic Representation of the Pervasive Importance of Communication in an IT Project Life Cycle.

3.1.1.2 Team Building

Lane (no date, URL) discussed the opening of new means of collaboration among project staff in IT project context. Traditionally, project work teams have to have series of meetings to exchange information, make joint decisions and update members on progress status of various project components. With the increasing competition in the wider business world, organizations face the strong requirement for outsourcing certain business functions in part or in whole to external service providers. In the current reality, this could mean working with a partner across oceans and thousands of miles away. This is possible with the increasing availability of communication infrastructure, particularly voice over IP and video conferences. Work team members are provided with ability to exchange and access each others works in progress in real time. These technologies enabled work teams communicate with better clarity and make decisions with more efficiency. The fact that meetings can be initiated as need arise and with regular intervals contribute to the effort of having effective version control and change management during system development in IT projects. This contributes to project completion both in time and budget. Likewise, more communication helps to reduce effort duplication, creates a better chance of sticking to the project plan and guiding requirements list. Real time and video enabled conferences that include multiple screens permit work teams and team members not only see each other, but also see their works on the screens and interact as live. However, this business imperative has brought increased challenge as well to project managers in the form of supervision of diverse, dispersed and external stakeholders. [Lane, no date, URL]

Cox (no date, URL) identifies five essentials for a successful team work. It is pointed out that what are required to make a team do not take a large sum of financial resource and include behavioural changes. The five important aspects identified are team composition and roles, goals and expectations, resources, sponsorship and recognition as well as reward. Team should be enabled that members understand their respective roles, realistic and clear expectation of other members, communicate amongst team members, and collaborate. In a team working setting, differences of skill, behaviour, experience level, personality and roles happen. With such differences comes potential for conflicts, discipline and compliance. Accordingly, initial team formation and initiation should consider the communication skills of members and possibly provide chance to create a shared understanding of communication and collaboration. Teams derive sense of purpose from their goals and objectives and setting such drivers is an important first step to increase the team's chance of success. The measurability aspect of goal and objectives is so important that failing to develop them with indicators makes assessment of team work progress difficult. [Cox, no date, URL]

The ideal and functional team size would be about seven people, which share roles for leadership, facilitation, note taking, technical expert, coordinator and presenter. Unregulated extension in the size of a team and the scope of its objectives can prove counter productive owing to communication problems. When practical reasons force such extensions, the addition has to be made with caution and extension beyond the ideal team member size of seven should be counteracted by creating additional team with clearly demarcated goal and objectives. The other important aspect from human psychology stand point is that team members like to get enough credit and appreciation to their contributions in the work teams and the organization as a whole. Rewards and recognition can be helpful in creating further motivation and to assure the good practice develops, regular reviews of the team performance and achievements can be useful. Like the recognition, teams have to be supplied with sufficient resources for the task at hand including time. [Cox, no date, URL] [Eikenberry, no date, URL]

In addition, Eikenberry (no date, URL) pointed out important points that assist a team's work and lead to success. From individual team members stand point, endeavouring to understand the goal, expected role and the need for collaboration are crucial. When unfamiliar and vague issues arise, asking question instead of making assumptions save from rather complicated communication problems. From both project manager and individual team members' side, recognition should be made to the fact that project components are interdependent and collaboration is the sure way of fulfilling the guiding goals and objectives. If project size proves to be daunting, breaking it down to sizable and appropriate levels helps to easily manage it. Likewise, documenting best practices for potential future reference, it is wise practice to examine if relevant and similar projects have been implemented before so that past mistakes are avoided and performance benefits from existing knowledge. [Eikenberry, no date, URL]

McGannon (no date, URL) also points out some of the challenges that thwart team building efforts. The primary error in initiating teams is trying it in a manner that is not genuine and not typical of the organizational context. Team perform better when members understand each other's capabilities, styles and approaches so that to shape up their expectation and self expression. Owing to certain observed aversion to team work, project managers as facilitators of the team building process should use probably other name for the process. As McGannon suggests, calling the process “kick-off meeting” could be used to dampen the negative association thereby presenting the people who will work in teams with problem solving exercises. Then, depending on the number of people involved, dividing the people in teams and work on the problems as well as present their solutions. Such exercise reveals to members each others level of expertise, approaches, styles, etc at least to a limited extent. As a complement, holding a meeting that involves people who will make up the work teams and discuss the norms and media of communication to established shared understanding and expectation is necessary. The norms guide, among others, response time based on media used and make communication easier. The same strategy of setting clear norms for decision making and communication should be followed with senior managers and major stakeholders involved in the project. Since the project team undertakes activities that are basically meant to fulfil certain requirements, it is a beneficial practice to arrange joint identification of requirements and prioritization by all stakeholders. Another way suggested to strengthen a team and help it refocus on the crucial work elements is by conducting review of the project in a rather informal manner. Making it informal aims at dispelling the usual tension undergoing review and evaluation evokes in employees resulting in a defensive stance. [McGannon, no date, URL]

3.1.1.3 Stakeholder Relationship

In project planning and implementation stakeholder should have active role and input. During project implementation, regular review produces information that updates progress status to all stakeholders. But when reviews are conducted bias arises as to the position different stakeholders take. The bias originates from such sources as reviewers background, review methodology, vested interest and deliberate obliteration of information. The implication of information coming out of reviews makes different groups to calculate the implication. But project management experience and the use of collectively developed checklist help to relieve this predicament. It is also helpful that reviewers should have subject matter related understanding and knowledge so that judgements do not suffer from not knowing the detail workings and assumptions the project component entails. [Riley, no date, URL]

As a central facilitator of the communication in projects, project managers should have certain qualities that make them effective in their role. Good communication requires reasonable balance of openness, feedback, keeping order, setting role model, etc. A project leader has to be a person with a clear vision of where to go and be able to communicate that with others in the project. The project manager spearheads the various teams and professionals in undertaking all activities deemed necessary for the realization of project goal and objectives. Keeping track of the project implementation process and making adjustment when unacceptable deviations from plan occur require sharp judgment and overall understanding of the project status. A project manager has to show integrity, passion, considerateness, competence and team building skills. [Barry, no date, URL]

When organizations initiate activities of strategic importance in the form of projects, it is crucial to make plans, communication and changes accessible to stakeholders and those who are involved in the project. If project planning methods and communication means too sophisticated to those who do not own the project, communication breakdown and change resistance encounter. In order to implement project with cooperation and involvement of stakeholders and project staff, breaking down change in to smaller and manageable size is one strategy. These smaller steps in project undertaking help to create sense of involvement and ownership about the project. This evokes a process of expectation formation, which has to be managed by the project manager. Due to the daunting nature of change, involvement and sense of influence by the stakeholders helps to minimize resistance and lack of cooperation. [Barlow, no date, URL]

The time management aspect refers to processes IT projects involve like project time estimation, following and controlling project timescale, and meeting project deadline.

Okoro (no date, URL) explained why projects fail to meet deadlines while recognizing the fact that projects are carried out under certain level of uncertainty. Project progress following the planned timescale suffers because of lack of skill and experience in estimating time for a set of activities and project components by considering the number, skill mix and experience of the project staff. Poor initial estimation leads to undesirable outcomes ranging from considerable deviation from action plan to total failure of project to meet deadline. Also, during actual project implementation, depending on the level of sense of responsibility and commitment of staff members, poor monitoring and follow up by project managers and senior management leads to time leak. When time estimation was initially made in an exaggerated manner, any early finishes could be used to wander away from essential project activities and wasting the time gain. Hence, as much as time estimation is the foundation of project timescale, time keeping and enforcing discipline is also important to have reasonable and acceptable project implementation progress. [Okoro, no date, URL]

Okoro (no date, URL) also reasons that two psychological factors affect the time keeping and saving efforts in project implementation. These factors are “Student Syndrome” and “Parkinson's Law” factors. The former refers to the tendency to procrastinate and negotiating to get as much extra time as possible, which may not necessarily be used to carry out vital activities. Any estimation errors can be corrected by thorough follow up in the case of excessive time allocation. The second factor at work is the Parkinson's Law, which refers to the fact that work allocated with overestimated time requirement tend to extend to fill the time available. Early finished tasks may not be reported for various reasons and the time gained, in effect, would be not gained. Likewise, if a specific project is initiated in a multi-project environment, this role and responsibility juggling could lead to lose of focus and competing priorities widening chance of error making. [Okoro, no date, URL] In any real world projects, like in an IT project, project component activities have interdependence and so do groups that assign to accomplish them. Accordingly, time management and activity coordination are closely interrelated. Time estimated for prerequisite activities, for intermediary and subsequent activities affect the start and finish time of tasks and the frequency and form of group communication. Apart from work teams, thus, project managers need to make sure milestones are clearly fulfilled and implementation progress is not compromised.

Talking about software projects specifically, Haughey, (c) (no date), pointed out that an initial decision about the expected deadline for project completion often creates a sense of urgency to start programming. The helpful sequence of undertaking, however, would have been taking reasonable time to come up with a technically sound design in light of the functional requirements. Failing to take time and figure out a realistic plan ushers in a prolonged need for addition of functionalities, adjustments and changes. [Haughey, (c), no date, URL]

In this chapter, two major source of IT project failure are explored namely human aspect and time management of projects. Among the various elements in the human aspect of IT projects, team building, communication and relationship with stakeholders were discussed by referring the experiences of various professional with many years of experience in project management and consultancy. Likewise, time management aspect of organization is discussed with suggestion for effectiveness strategies.

Conclusive Summary

When a new technology like IT is introduced to organizations, it cause disturbance to the established pattern, procedure and culture of communication and interaction. In comparison with the non-human aspect, the human aspect of organizations is very dynamic and is a source of risk of resistance and failure. People in organizations behave differently depending on their motivation level, motives, political power, standing in the status quo and past experience. Also, it is evident that human relationships, team spirit, individual acceptance and understanding of the technology are critically important in the fruition of an IT project.

Regarding failures in IT projects, IT projects' success could be curtailed by changes in the level of commitment for the project from senior management members' side. The shift could be due to other pressing needs arising during the course of project implementation, internal politics in the organization, acquiring more clear ideas about the nature of the project as implementation unfolds, etc.

Communication is a fundamental requirement in an IT project management all through out its life cycle. At the initial phase of project initiation, communication has to be made with clarity and inclusiveness in order to achieve common understanding about the objectives of the project. Once properly understood, user requirements guide the project activity and serves as yardstick to assess the overall achievement of the project.

Discipline, work organization, accountability among project staff members are three important elements in the success of a project management. Peoples' personal attitude, organizational culture, political and social affiliations from the society all play a role in the level of commitment people show with regard to these values.

Work organization should be made using teams of professionals with an ideal and functional team size of about seven people, which share roles for leadership, facilitation, note taking, technical expert, coordinator and presenter. On the other hand, a project manager has to show integrity, passion, considerateness, competence and team building skills.

Project progress following the planned timescale suffers because of lack of skill and experience in estimating time for a set of activities and project components versus the number, skill mix and experience of the project staff. Poor initial estimation leads to undesirable outcomes ranging from considerable deviation from action plan to total failure of project to meet deadline. Also, during actual project implementation, depending on the level of sense of responsibility and commitment of staff members, poor monitoring and follow up by project managers and senior management leads to time leak.

IT project could end up in failure, partially or in full, due to lack of clear methodology, unrealistic timescale set ahead of requirements identification, lack of technically competent leadership, and model design faults. In the dynamics of project implementation, discoveries often are made on overlooked requirements that usher in a temptation to add new functionalities. Consequently, projects may suffer from scope creep.

At the core of IT project failure, lack of top management endorsement or dedication, lack of clear project scope and inability to properly capture user requirements stand as the salient sources of risk. Moreover, IT projects have peculiar challenges that range from hardware and software shortcomings, to manufacturers' standard incompatibility, and security. These added risks are distinctive sources of failure.

Quality of the system designed and developed can be questioned when the driving force after the project initiation was wrong, mistakes made during the project requirement analysis or the system tried to address the wrong problem. Likewise, the system may turn out to be unproductive as expected due to poor project control and/or change of business requirement.

In IT projects, analysis of user requirement that lacks thoroughness and discovery of missing requirement during project implementation could lead to a loss of grip on the project scope. Also, the system may get completed in time and budget but could fail to provide all user requirements. It may also have quality problems in relation to such aspects as security, usability, compatibility, agility. Consequently, a system becomes unusable and unproductive.

The project implementation could also go beyond the budget allocated and time. Project managers face the options of either asking for more money or dropping certain proposed system components. A project design prepared with the guidance of user requirements could be rendered useless due to such project management dilemmas.

Notwithstanding the fact that IT projects vary in size, scope and goals, there are cautions that can be taken to prevent failure in IT projects. To start with, it is important to have a proper planning process that identifies project execution stages, methodologies and sets time as well as resource estimates.

As part of the planning process, risk analysis and preparation of risk management mechanisms are necessary too.

Also, using the ISO standards for information systems is a method of identifying a project with high likelihood of failure.

For a project to be successful, it is helpful to organize the project into five crucial phases: setting project scope, planning, execution, control and closure. Projects can be made successful by managing them using a series of smaller sets of activities called phases.

References

Project Proposal

Overview

The rate of change in the business arena is continuously increasing and companies are continuously seeking innovative products, services and knowledge-enabled processes to enable them to compete effectively against each other. IT plays a major role as an enabler of these processes. The problem is that the implementations of IT projects, commissioned to support and enable the business functions, often fail.

The rate of failing IT Projects is high and a major concern in the business environment. The phenomenon of IT project failure has been in existence for many years and has in more recent years become a relevant topic calling for investigation and further study. Accordingly, this document is the compilation of the results of a study of the reasons why IT projects fail and offers possible measures to be taken to counter the failure of IT projects.

An in-depth research will be carried out by fully exploiting various sources like online journals, hardcopy journals, relevant case studies and books to clearly depict the major reasons for IT project failures and also the adequate ways to avoid them.

Objectives

3. To have a deep understanding of IT project failures, major reasons they happen and clearly stated ways of possibly halting the problems.

4. Milestones for research progress.

Relevance to Programme

The reasons for and adequate avoidance of information technology (IT) project failure involves an in-depth research and exploitation of various relevant sources.

This Research is relevant to my programme in the following way:

Resources

The following resources will be used in executing the research:

Critical Success Factors

The critical success factors are the crucial tasks that need to be properly executed in other to achieve a good outcome.

Listed below are the critical success factors:

If the factors above are adhered to, the research definitely will be a success.

References

APPENDIX - B: Project Gant Chart

We provide a professional essay writing service that thousands of our customers use as an effective way of improving their grades, improving their research and saving them lots of time.

Order Now. It takes less than 2 minutes.

  1.  
  2.  
  3.  
  1.  
Live Chat

Essay, dissertation & assignment
prices

About UK Essays

Buying an essay?
All you
need to
know...

Bibliography & References

SAVE Yourself Time & Money

Save £££s with our great
bundle
deals

Free
Essay
Questions

Harvard Referencing
Generator

Sign up and be the first to receive our latest offers:

Struggling? We can help!