Terrorism Suicide Political
How does the study of the practice, context and rhetoric of suicide bombing affect our understanding of political rationality in general, and of the rationality of violence in particular?
Terrorism has been employed by various religions and cultures since the dawn of human existence, for ideological, religious, political or nationalistic purposes. A suicide bomber aims his or hers attack on a military or civilian target, in which they intend to kill others, and they know that they too will die in the process. To some terrorists, a suicide bomber is seen as a hero as they are fighting a ‘holy war'. While the rest of the world remain bewildered as there seems to be a countless supply of individuals ready to blow themselves up. "Suicide attacks are an especially convincing way to signal the likelihood of more pain to come, because" if you are willing to kill yourself you are also willing to endure brutal retaliation. "... The element of suicide itself helps increase the credibility of future attacks because it suggests that attackers cannot be deterred." (Pape, Dying to Win, (2005), p.28-9).
Sometimes, a terrorists motive is just not for political reasons alone. It can be aimed at the general public of the Western world, simply because they might be seen as ‘enemies'. Al Qaeda is a society of sorts in that their recruits become part of a secret international brotherhood, and this brotherhood comes to supersede all other affiliations and loyalties (Jenkins, 2002:5). Jenkins notes that the majority of martyrdom operation proposals come from field operatives rather than the center, even though the final approval comes from the center which provides the necessary resources to realize the recruits. Mortal plans (2002:5), but this is testimony of the extent to which these recruits have been indoctrinated and have literally dedicated their lives to the organisation. September 11th, Al Qaeda's most notorious terrorist attack thus far, brought about catastrophic results and testified to a determination and mindset that would not preclude the use of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) if the terrorists could somehow acquire them. (Jenkins, 2002:6).
The deadly form of indoctrination begins at a very tender age, and it would seem, eventually facilitates the recruitment process. Children from a very young age are taught to hate non-Muslims; you see images of children dressed up as suicide bombers with fake bomber belts wrapped around their tiny waists. They are exposed to the teachings of the Quran through their distorted lens of their teachers and attend schools where they are taught that Jews are subhumans, even apes, and must be destroyed. (Murphy, 2002:1),
and where they used to play cowboys and Indians they now play martyrs and Jews.
So understanding the rationality of political movements and terrorism and violence makes us think of a whole scenario. Is the violence stemmed from a feeling of hate towards the Western world because of religion? Are the laws there to serve everyone in society fairly?
During the 11th century, the hashashin or ‘assassin', Muslim Shiite fighters situated in northern Persia, used suicide terrorism as a means to spread the Islamic cause (Sprinzak, 2000:2). Since the 11th Century, however, suicide terrorism has evolved into a greater more destructive and virulent force.
The change in the terrorist trend has gone from the ethno-separatist and political terrorist groups to the religious fundamentalist terrorist groups, which, according to Jerrold Post (1997) are likely to be the most dangerous of terrorist groups. The 1979 Iranian revolution and rise of Ayatollah Ruhollah Komeini brought about the revival of the Islamic doctrine and talks of recreating the .ideal Islamic government. (Wright,1985:27).
One initial reaction to contemporary suicide bombing is to assume that bombers are motivated by despair, and they are likey to come from a poor isolated segment in society. This is the view that has been expressed by George W. Bush. However this is quite a narrow minded stereotype of a suicide bomber. As other intellectual writers have pointed out, a contemporary suicide bomber can be male or female, educated or uneducated, from the Middle East or from the West. Farhad Khosrokhavar's book Suicide Bombers - Allah's New Martyrs is very helpful to use when looking at suicide bombers and political rationality.
Forensic psychiatrist, (M.Sageman) found a lack of antisocial behavior, mental illness, early social trauma or behavioral disorders such as rage, paranoia, narcissism among the 400 members of the Al Qaeda terror network he studied. (Sageman, Marc, Understanding Terror Networks, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004, 81-90).
Understanding violence in the contempory world is far more complex than most think. As there are different types of suicide bombers, with different motives. Farhad Khosrokhavar outlines that there are two types of bombers - defensive and offensive. Those who are willing to kill themselves and everyone around them, and those who only seek out to kill themselves to gain empowerment. Suicide bombers believe that their actions are in accordance with moral or social standards because they are aimed at fighting forces and conditions that they perceive as unjust, unfair and immoral to their beliefs.
In his book, Dead for Good, Hugh Barlow describes recent suicide attack campaigns as new development in the long history of martyrdom, that he dubs predatory martyrdom. Some individuals who now act alone are inspired by emails, radical books, the internet, various new electronic media, and a general public tolerance of extreme teachers and masterminds.
When considering violence and political rationality religion is often a factor. Suicide bombing is often associated with the religion of Islam. 224 of 300 suicide terror attacks from 1980 to 2003 compiled by the Chicago Project on Suicide Terrorism involved Islamist groups or terrorist acts in Muslim-majority lands. (from Pape, Dying to Win (2005) , computed from Table 1 on p15).
Another factor or term used is genocide bombing. The term was coined in 2002 by Canadian member of parliament Irwin Cotler, in an effort to replace the term homicide bomber as a substitute for "suicide bomber." (Kesher Talk, /a>June 24, 2002). The intention was to focus attention on the alleged intention of Genocide by militant Palestinians in their calls to “Wipe Israel off the map.” (Washington Times Commentary).
Most writers and theorists aim to explain reasons for terrorism in terms of personal events or traumas, or economic factors that motivate people or how they relate to wider ideological justifications or movements.
In the case of Hanandi Jaradat, a Palestinian suicide bomber, the most obvious factor could be the experience she had of the murder of her brother and cousin infront of her. So in this case the direct experience of the trauma seems to have been more powerful than the simple fact that someone very close to her was killed. The detail of the source and her memories make the experience seem very vivid and powerful to her, and she herself says she lost her mind at that moment, so clearly it had a deep psychological effect on her, that was reinforced by the family receiving the body and her father's reaction. The fact that her fiancée was killed before but on its own that apparently that did not cause her to become a suicide bomber. Because of the nature of the source itself, i.e. an interview she gave about her brother's death before her own death. We cannot know from this exactly whether what happened was what made her decide to become a suicide bomber. Although the article makes that seem the case, that it was revenge, by the quote at the end, ‘Your blood will not have been shed in vain. The murderer will pay the price and we will not be the only ones who are crying. ‘If our nation cannot realize its dream and the goals of the victims, and live in freedom and dignity, then let the whole world be erased'. We would have to be careful to allow for the fact that this story has been used by a newspaper which might have an agenda of its own of how it presented the story.
Understanding what suicide bombers hope to achieve out of their actions is what is always questioned. Whether it is a political change in a regime or for a countries involvement with another. From the paperback edition published by Pluto Press 2005 , the example of this woman in the source seems to conform to Farhad Khosrokhavar's first type of suicide bomber, or 'classic' form 'who wish to build a sovereign collectively (usually a nation) and who, when then proves impossible, embrace a sacred death either as a way of helping others to build it after their death, or to kill as many people as possible' (p. 225). This is the type Farhad Khosrokhavar sees mostly located in Muslim countries engaged in some kind of struggle within a national context, of which Palestine is one of his main examples (pp. 109-141) along with Iran and Lebanon - as opposed to the second, trans-national type of international jihadism, 'the product of globalisation, the vicissitudes of the Islamic diaspora in the West and the crisis in the Muslim societies of the Middle East and the former Soviet Empire' (p. 149).
Khosrokhavar states 'there is also another sort of martyr whose aspirations are more disturbing. They wish to construct a worldwide community that is the embodiment of Islamic universalism by destroying the might of the evil forces that oppose it: the West, as personified by America and, to a certain extent, other Western societies.' (pg. 225). Here Khosrokhavar refers to a group of individuals who turn to this act when they feel the West are opposing to their ways and faith. And the West become seen as 'evil forces' to these extremists. This disturbing act relates to the concept of the martyr in fundamentalist Islam.
When understanding the rationality of violence and political aspects, the two are closely linked. If there is a legislation which appears to be unfair to a certain group such as a minority, then there will be a small group who will retaliate. The growing number of suicide bombers seems endless as there seems to be a large supply, especially in the Middle East. Khosrokhavar states 'there is also another sort of martyr whose aspirations are more disturbing. They wish to construct a worldwide community that is the embodiment of Islamic universalism by destroying the might of the evil forces that oppose it: the West, as personified by America and, to a certain extent, other Western societies.' (pg. 225). Here Khosrokhavar refers to a group of individuals who turn to this act when they feel the West are opposing to their ways and faith. And the West become seen as 'evil forces' to these extremists. This disturbing act relates to the concept of the martyr in fundamentalist Islam.
The general perception of a suicide bomber is one which often links Islam extremists who have been manipulated or 'brainwashed' by an extremist mastermind. What Khosrokhavar points out is that there are more important factors to consider, for example the different types of martyr, and the reasons behind it all. Khosrokhavar makes a clear and distinct argument for different types of martyrs.
When it comes to studying the acts and motives for suicide bombers, it becomes far more complex than most people think. But Khosrokhavar's definitions and ideas help us to see this by looking at more factors triggering there people to commit to such crime. Looking at the psychological motives for these individuals is a must, however some people in society (with the help of the media) are quick to blame a single minority. Khosrokhavar makes the point that these individuals are a small minority within a society; however what they represent is a dark side to a new world civilization. 'The martyrs and their radical Islam represent only a tiny minority within Western societies.' (pg. 228). Because this minority oppose the Western world and its culture, it becomes so easy to blame all Muslims for the concept of 'holy war'.
Khosrokhavar also looks into the idea of martyr in Christianity. 'In both Christianity and Islam it is associated with the notion of bearing witness, which is itself tied up with the idea of the struggle against injustice and oppression.' (pg 5.) This could also be used to support his claim that suicide bombers are not the product of Islam. Khosrokhavar continues on to say 'The Christian martyrs were classic examples... Christianity is not the only religion to promote martyrdom.' Khosrokhavar refers to the Buddhist monks in Vietnam in the 1960's to support the view that there have been more faiths involved with such acts.
Suicide bombers can be from the Middle East or home grown terrorists in any Western country. The social explanation for suicide bombers born and living in these countries, could be that they are subjected to what modernity and globalisation give out, but still face such discrimination and/or oppression. Khosrokhavar highlights the point that society can not blame all Muslims for such acts of crime, because it is only a minority that carry out such ghastly acts. However the problem that arises out of this is linking the religion to their holy beliefs. Not everyone in society can distinguish between the concept of 'holy war' and the religion on its own.
Interestingly Khosrokhavar makes a comparison between Christianity and Islam, 'The Christian does not seek to inflict death upon the Roman pagan who wishes his to foreswear his faith... In the case of Islam, martyrdom is a death resulting from the fight against the enemy of the religion of Allah.' (pg 11.) This statement could go against Khosrokhavar's argument that suicide bombers are not a result of Islam. As it appears to be directing and linking the religion so strongly with 'enemies'.
When looking at suicide bombers and the networks they belong to, it is important to note that in some cases the individual may not be linked at all to a activist group. As Khosrokhavar states 'Not all the suicide bombers were supported by activist groups. Some, like Daoud Ali, appear not to have belonged to any organisation. He was a quiet 46 year old family man who, according to his brother, attended the mosque regularly but had not previously had any political involvement.' (pg. 30). However this case may not be entirely reliable, ad Daoud Ali could have covered his tracks linking him to any organisation. The information of Daoud Ali's life in this case has only been extracted from his brothers knowledge of him. The 'holy war' is a fight against the West because these extremists from a dark side of a new world civilization believe the West portray a line of satanic, unhealthy, immoral set of behaviour. Although there are many law abiding Muslims across the world, this view of the West remains to be popular. This idea can be used to help to explain why this struggle of oppression exists because of their historic and religious beliefs and why the political sphere is not always there to serve everyone.
Although Britain is much more culturally diverse than France and other European countries, there are still areas in Britain that still hold disturbances relating to race, for example Bradford race riots in July 2001. Homegrown suicide bombers can be a result of a racist, predjudiced society. Young men of Pakistani origin may feel alienated from the rest of the British public because they can be labelled as 'non-white', 'different' or 'pakis' (pg. 196) This may cause them to feel a sense of rejection and oppression, which leads on to one of Khosrokhavar's type of suicide bombers where the individual lives in the heart of the Western world, but experiences racism and discrimination. Khosrokhavar mentions the role of the big cities and the diversity of cultures. This aspect is important to consider because this could be seen as a positive as well as a negative. This positive view of many foreigners mixing with natives in big cities allows cultural diversity and a sense of multiculturalism. People from different nations have the ability to pick and mix cultural behaviours and interact with others. However it could be argued that the downside to this could be that these subcultures can become universal and a dominant culture can overide minorities and more discreet cultueres by the use of the media and other influential forces modernity uses. It can also cause some to feel that they do not belong becuase they feel isolated and alienated as a result of modernity. Khosrokhavar argues that the policies from the Western countries are biased against the Islamic world. This view could be another reason in itself for the existence of suicide bombers. 'Martyrdom is not the infantile malady of Islam, but something that allows Muslims to recover the dignity they have been denied by the Western countries whose policies are certainly biased against the Islamic world (witness their attitude towards the Palestinian and Chechen national problems) (pg. 229.)
In most cases it has been found that people have become terrorists through social networks or masterminds rather than because of their own preconceptions and beliefs of their religion. However the media and even some of society may be easily tempted to believe that individuals turn to terrorism and become suicide bombers as an act of devotion to their religion. And it is this view that may lead to some feeling alienated and oppressed. The most likely to feel this alienation from society would be first and second generation immigrants living in a Western country. It has been found that 84% of terrorists were second generation immigrants born in Western countries (Sageman). A recent example of this could be the individuals involved in the 2005 London bombings, where these men were first and second generation immigrants. It could be argued that they felt alienated living in a Western society so they turnt to the Jihad as a response of the alienation and discrimination they may have felt in their country even if they were born and educated in the UK.
Until recently, the leading experts in psychological profiles of suicide terrorists characterised them as uneducated, unemployed, socially isolated, single men in their late teens and early 20s (Merari 1990: Post 1990). However, Sprinzak (2000) points out that recently we have seen that suicide bombers can be educated or uneducated, married or unmarried, men or women, socially isolated or integrated. And this makes it impossible to identify them in advance.
Although there appears to be versus in the Koran about Jihad, there are also versus of peace. Verse 61 of 'spoils' surah: 'If they incline to peace, make peace with them, and put your trust in God. It is surely He who hears all and knows all'. Khosrokhavar states that 'The Koran thus contains surahs that are against war and in favour of peace, just as it contains surahs in favour of jihad and opposed to a peace that is regarded as humiliating for believers.' (pg. 17.) However Khosrokhavar also states that there appears to be a contradiction in the Koran with peace and war. 'The essential problem that preoccupies koranic exegetes is to demonstrate that these different surahs are compatible and to arrange them into a hierarchy where they appear to contradict eachother.' (pg. 17). This point could be used to argue Khosrokhavar's argument that suicide bombers are not a product of Islam if the Koran does show evidence to support Jihad. However Khosrokhavar's reference to Christianity throughout his book demonstrates that Islam is not in a monopoly since other religions also encourage a sense of empowerment.
When a Buddhist monk in protest set himself on fire in the oppression of Buddhism in Vietnam in 1963, it promoted more than 1,000 similar suicides. It was a preferred method because this concept used the individuals death to bear witness to a cause, without killing anyone else. And the use of the media meant that this act of protest made a huge impact across the globe in all nations. It is a shocking act but proves to be effective in giving a cause prominence. This is they type of suicide bomber that Khosrokhavar refers to as a defensive suicide bomber. As well as religion other social factors must be considered such as age and education. Afghan suicide bombers tend to be of a younger age and less educated than other suicide bombers elsewhere around the world.
However when relating other religions into this, the types of suicide bombers must be considered e.g., whether the bomber is a offensive or defensive type. It may be interesting to make comparisons between different faiths and the type of suicide bomber. Our findings may shock us, or they may fit in with the stereotypes made by society. A factor some theorists might use would be economic. Some use the theory to put emphasis of the economic disempowerment of people as a cause of their frustration.
It is also neccessary to consider psychological fctors when linking violence to political rationalisation. A suicide bomber could be feeling alienated, oppressed or depressed or suffer some sort of mental illness in a Western country. Or they could be living in the Middle East where living conditions are so different, they may be exposed to fighting and war, which may have an impact on their mental state to begin with. As well as this they are still being subjected to Western culture by the means on the media, technology and communication systems. Living in the Middle East could also mean poorer living conditions so they may feel there no hope. These factors could make them more vulnerable to joining a activist group or taking their own life for a 'holy war'. On the other hand, it has been said that the evidence pointing to most suicide bombers recently have been middle-classed civilians, either from the Middle East or from a Western country. And these individuals were found to be educated, some British born, and with no signs of being clinically depressed. Another vital factor to consider is a country's relationship to the US. It has been found that most suicide attacks have been from Muslim regimes with close ties to the US.
A contemporary example of a political dispute can be the controversy over the Islamic veil. The most debated point is over whether or not students have the right to wear the veil in classes in public establishments such as primary and secondary schools, as well as universities. In France Muslim women are the party most directly concerned with the laws concerning the veil. The veil controversy has been used opportunely to promote the expression of a French form Islam, distinct from Islam in French Muslims countries of origin. In some cities, conflict continues concerning adults' wearing of the Muslim veil. In some cases, the school administration has forbidden mothers and other family members not to weir their veil while accompanying students on school excursions to such places as libraries and parks. These interdictions have sometimes been rejected by school boards, and are unevenly enforced.
There has also been a ban on wearing religion symbols in French public. This applies to all faiths, and not just Islam. The law does not mention any particular symbol, though it is considered by many to specifically target the wearing of headscarves. For this reason, it is occasionally referred to as the French headscarf ban in the foreign press. As this proposed ban was surfaced, the public were quick to react to this. On Febuary 14th 2004 the Associated Press reported that "Thousands of people, many of them women wearing headscarves, marched in France ... to protest a law banning the Islamic coverings and other religious apparel in public schools.".
As well as there being responses from the public, there are also political reactions and legal arguments that question such controversial laws. However in this case, despite the controversy when the law was passed, and the publicity it had across the globe, the law still went into effect on September 2nd 2004. And according to statistics from the French government, 240 girls attempted to come to school with a headscarf; 170 later accepted -more or less voluntarily - to take it off, and 70 "conciliation procedures" were started.
Although the there is not policy in the UK to ban headscarves, there was a similar controversal case. Shabina Begum was a pupil at Denbigh High School in Luton, Bedfordshire, England who claimed she had a right to wear a hijab. The school stated that she was required to attend school dressed in the correct uniform, and Begum refused to attend unless she was allowed to wear her hijab. Across the UK many schools have been able to incorporate the Jilhab into school uniform. But this case drove the attention from the media and supporters in France. In a press release for this case it was noted “Today the decision to rule in favour of Ms Begum proves that Britain's legislative system is a shining example for religious tolerance in Europe.” This is evidence supporting that the UK's political system is a fair and tolerant one that exists to serve all fairly.
Bibliography
- Barlow, H . “Dead for Good - Martyrdom and the Rise of the Suicide Bomber (Paperback)
- F. Khosrokhavar “Suicide bombers - Allah's New Martyrs”
- Pape, Robert A. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism," American Political Science Review, 2003. 97 (3): pp. 1-19.
- Pape, Robert A. Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism (Paperback)
- Merari, Ariel. The Readiness to Kill and Die. In Origins of Terrorism. Edited by Walter
- Reich. Cambridge, U.K.:Cambridge University Press. 1990:192-207.
- Sageman, Marc, Understanding Terror Networks, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004, 81-90).
- Sageman, Mark. 2004. "Social Networks and the Jihad". Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Ch. 5 pp. 166-167
- Sprinzak, Ehud. Rational Fanatics. Foreign Policy. September/October 2000 (7p)
10. essay ‘Terrorism' date 6th Jan 08.
Websites
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanadi_Jaradat
2. www.keshertalk.com
3. http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/2003_09_30.htm
4. http://www.jjay.cuny.edu/terrorism/ApocSuicide.pdf
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